Biofilm formation is a prevalent contamination source in the dairy processing industry. It enhances the tolerance of bacterial cells and elevates the risk of product spoilage. Moreover, biofilms can present significant challenges to dairy processing equipment, thereby threatening the safety and efficiency of operations. In the dairy product processing environment, biofilms typically appear as mixed biofilms. Compared to single-species biofilms, mixed biofilms are characterized by high diversity, complex spatial distribution, strong antibiotic resistance and high adaptability to environmental conditions. Consequently, it is essential to comprehensively understand the formation mechanisms and characteristics of mixed biofilms and develop effective control strategies. This review provides an overview of the formation of common microbial biofilms and their mixed biofilms during dairy processing, describes the cellular interactions and characteristics, and finally outlines current common biofilm control measures. All of these efforts aim to provide valuable insights for reducing risks associated with mixed biofilms in the dairy environment.

The lactation curve expresses the pattern of milk production throughout the lactation period. Such a curve provides insights to assist in designing proper management strategies. Culling dairy cows directly influences the farm economy and animal welfare. The lactation curve components (LCC) of culled Holstein cows, compared with those of retained cows, have not been studied. This study aims to investigate the LCC in culled Holstein cows compared with those retained unculled in the same herd. This research included 27,297 complete lactation records for Holstein cows described as retained or culled for low milk yield, reproductive disorders, udder problems, metabolic disorders, locomotive problems, endemic diseases, respiratory diseases and unknown reasons. The incomplete gamma function was fitted to estimate LCC, as represented by initial milk yield (IMY), the rate of milk increase to peak, the rate of milk decline after peak, peak yield (PY), time to reach peak and persistency. The general linear model was applied to analyse the effects of stayability class (retained/culled) on LCC. Cows culled for reproductive disorders showed no significant differences in LCC compared to retained cows, but they spent more days in milk (54.9 weeks) than retained cows (48.9 weeks). Except for those with reproductive disorders, all culled cows exhibited shorter lactation lengths, higher rates of milk decline after peak, shorter times to attain PY and lower persistence than retained cows. In addition, cows culled for metabolic disorders exhibited higher initial milk (35 kg) and peak milk yields (44.2 kg) than the retained cows and those culled for other reasons. In conclusion, by linking culling causes to milk production trends, this research equips farmers to identify risks earlier, such as tracking milk decline onset and adapting management to retain healthier, high-value cows longer. This strategy could reduce costs, enhance milk output and improve herd welfare on dairy farms.

Fermentation and storage are known to enhance the production of natural antioxidative and angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory components in dairy products. In this study, the antioxidative potential (% ABTS and % DPPH inhibition) and ACE-inhibitory activity of fermented skim milk (fermented at 42°C for 24 h) using 10 isolates, previously isolated and characterized from the traditional sweet curd of West Bengal, India were evaluated over a storage period of 7 days at 7 ± 2°C. Among all isolates, subsp. (JSLP) exhibited the highest functional activity, with ABTS and DPPH inhibition levels of 14.57 ± 0.67% and 14.43 ± 0.72%, respectively, and ACE inhibition of 47.86 ± 1.95% after 24 h of fermentation. These bioactivities further increased during storage. The findings scientifically validate the health-promoting properties of traditional Indian sweet curd prepared with subsp, highlighting its potential for commercial application in functional dairy product development and its role in reducing the risk of lifestyle-related diseases.

Bovine mastitis poses a significant threat to dairy production worldwide. Among the various etiologies of mastitis, is a predominant environmental pathogen. Antibiotic-resistant poses substantial challenges for treating mastitis and is a threat to public health, necessitating the exploration of alternative therapeutic strategies. We studied bacteriophages as a potential alternative therapy for bovine mastitis-associated . We isolated 37 bacteriophages infecting , and characterized them for host range, growth kinetics, morphology, stability, genome fingerprinting and genome sequencing and analysis. The phages lysed between 4% and 62% of the isolates tested. Notably, 30 phages lysed bovine mastitis-associated strains. The 10 best phages selected based on host strain specificity revealed latent periods ranging from 50 to 90 min and burst sizes between 7 and 69 PFU/mL. Based on their shorter latent period and larger burst size, seven phages were subjected to transmission electron microscopy, which revealed their myovirus and siphovirus morphologies. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of the same seven phages indicated six different patterns. The seven phages were stable at temperatures ranging from 4°C to 50°C, and at pH values ranging from 3 to 9. Whole-genome sequencing and analysis of the six phages, which showed unique RFLP patterns, predicted a lytic lifecycle, with no sequences encoding toxins or antibiotic-resistance genes. Importantly, these six phages were able to lyse multidrug-resistant and extended β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing under conditions and mastitis-associated in milk. Additionally, three phages belonging to different genera did not exhibit toxicity to mammalian cells. This study underscores the potential of bacteriophages as alternative therapeutic agents for associated bovine mastitis. Our study has broader implications for udder and animal health, as well as the production of quality milk and dairy products, and food safety and security.

Dairy cow longevity affects production economy, climate footprint, and cow welfare. Based on data from the Danish Cattle Database, this research paper evaluates the relationship between early-life risk factors associated with the period before first calving and cow longevity, including data from all Danish dairy cows culled in 2019-2023. Explanatory variables for linear mixed models included calf size, twinning, and age at first calving. Information about the length of productive life (LPL) (mean: 1,074 days) and lifetime milk yield (mean: 32,088 kg energy-corrected milk) was available for 767,305 and 716,120 cows, respectively. Milk yield per day of life increased from 7 kg in cows culled during the first lactation to more than 20 kg in cows culled in their fifth or later lactations. For cows born as singletons, LPL was one month longer for cows born as large calves than for medium-sized calves, and 2 months longer than for small calves. Cows born as twins had 2 to 3 months shorter productive lives compared to cows born as singletons. For singletons, lifetime milk yield was 1,200 kg higher for large calves than for medium-sized calves, and 2,100 kg higher than for small calves. Lifetime milk yield was 1,500 to 3,500 kg lower in cows born as twins. Cows being among the third quartile of age at first calving had an estimated productive life 2.5 months longer, and a lifetime milk yield more than 2,600 kg higher than cows calving among the first quartile of age. The results from this study clearly demonstrate the importance of 'a good start'.

Food wastes are thought to be a substantial source of bioactive components with many functions and varying biological activities, therefore, numerous studies have been conducted on the use of these wastes to maximize their benefits. Nano-materials have been demonstrated that have higher bioavailability, functionality and effectiveness in the food systems. This study was conducted to determine how the nutritional value and quality characteristics of ice cream would be affected by the use of nano-powders made from apricot ( sp.) and peach ( L. Batsch) kernels, watermelon () rind and banana ( spp.) peel as functional additives (1%).The tested nano-waste powders significantly ( < 0.05) increased the total solids, protein, fat and ash contents distinctly with apricot kernels (AK) and peach kernels (PK). The physiochemical properties of ice cream mix and the final product were also affected with a significant increase of viscosity and overrun. Watermelon rind (WMR) and banana peel (BP) boosted the total phenolic content and diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity (%) as compared to the control and other wastes. The added nano-waste powders, except for BP, enhanced the meltability, microstructure properties and improved the sensory attributes of the resultant ice cream during 30 days of storage compared to control. The study recommends utilization of the tested nano fruit wastes as value added components to create innovative and higher-quality ice cream.

This study evaluated the effect of sweet whey fermented by subsp. NCFB 2772, an exopolysaccharide (EPS)-producing lactic acid bacterium (LAB), on the yield and quality of Requeson, a traditional Mexican fresh cheese, further supplemented with the probiotic strain 431. Fermentation of the whey at 42°C for 48 hours resulted in the production of 1.126 ± 0.12 mg dextran/mL of EPS. The incorporation of this EPS-rich whey led to a marked (∼230%) increase in cheese yield and significantly enhanced textural properties, including greater hardness, cohesiveness and elasticity. Furthermore, 431 maintained viability above 10 cfu/g throughout 21 days of refrigerated storage (4°C), with no detectable microbial contamination. Although formulations containing EPS were slightly preferred in sensory evaluations, they exhibited improved stability and retained overall acceptable sensory quality. These results highlight the potential of EPS-producing LAB and probiotics to improve the technological, nutritional and functional attributes of fresh cheese, while contributing to the valorisation of dairy by-products.

The main challenge to producing a nutritionally improved milk fat composition is to increase monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and decrease saturated fatty acids (SFA) without detriment to dairy product characteristics. Our aim was to determine the optimal amount of intestinally available oleic acid (via abomasal infusion) to produce higher-MUFA milk fat with satisfactory functional characteristics for ice cream. One control and four increasing doses of free fatty acids (FA) from high oleic sunflower oil (HOSFA) were infused into the abomasa of four lactating dairy cows in a changeover design with periods of 7 d. Treatments were (1) control (no FA infused), (2) HOSFA (250 g/d), (3) HOSFA (500 g/d), (4) HOSFA (750 g/d), and (5) HOSFA (1000 g/d). All treatments included meat solubles and Tween 80 as emulsifiers. Ice cream mixes were prepared with butter oil from all treatments. Samples prepared from control and 500 g/d HOSFA infusion were evaluated by a judging panel in a triangle test. Statistical analysis of results showed linear changes in most of the variables analysed as HOSFA infusion increased. For ice cream under freezing temperatures, the 500 g/d level was optimal. Sensory evaluation analysis indicated no statistical difference between ice creams prepared from the control and 500 g/d HOSFA infusion. Changes in 23 triacylglycerol fractions were statistically correlated to functional properties at 10 min of freezing. The decrease in fractions with SFA (butyrin-caprylin-palmitin, butyrin-laurin-olein, butyrin-myristin-palmitin, butyrin-palmitin-palmitin, caproin-myristin-palmitin, butyrin-palmitin-stearin, caproin-palmitin-palmitin) and the increase in dioleyl triglycerides (with butyric, lauric, myristic and palmitic acids) and triolein were some of the most highly correlated with ice cream functional properties as the result of increasing HOSFA infusion. We were able to produce an ice cream with desirable physical and organoleptic qualities, yet containing twice as much oleic acid and two-thirds as much palmitate as a control ice cream.

Diagnosis of cases of mastitis is particularly challenging due to their unique biological characteristics, which complicate diagnosis and treatment. Hence, accurate and quick diagnostic tests for early detection of mastitis are essential to initiate appropriate interventions or culling. The objective of this research is to estimate the diagnostic performance of the molecular microarray assay (MMA) against bacterial culture for the diagnosis of bovine intramammary infections (IMI) with spp., using a gold standard approach and the Kappa agreement coefficient. A total of 395 quarter milk samples were collected from cows in 31 dairy herds with conventional milking systems in California, USA. Following dairy personnel practices, milk samples were collected from the lactating cows showing abnormal milk characteristics and shipped within 24 hours to the laboratory for bacterial culture and MMA examination. Milk samples with positive growth were confirmed via PCR test to eliminate misdiagnosis of spp. Eighty-seven cows (22%) were positive for spp. IMI and the test accuracy was 88.4%. The sensitivity of MMA was 90.8% (95% CI (Confidence Interval): 82.68-95.95), and the specificity was 87.66% (95% CI: 83.46-91.12). The positive predictive value of MMA in these herds was 67.52% (95% CI: 60.51-73.83), and the negative predictive value was 97.12% (95% CI: 94.57-98.49). Calculated Kappa coefficient was 0.70 (95% CI: 0.618-0.778). The high estimates of sensitivity and specificity of MMA suggest its usefulness as a routine and quick test for accurate diagnosis of spp. IMI in dairy cows. Our findings indicate that MMA holds promise for enhancing the detection of spp. and could potentially revolutionize diagnostic practices in the dairy industry and supports udder health management.

This research paper describes the effect of fermented substrates comprised of dairy by-products and underutilised cereals on murine faecal enzymes and faecal microbial profiles, and the development of the fermented substrate into a sour-spicy beverage for human consumption. A fermented substrate was made by using dairy by-products and underutilised cereals, whey and skim milk blend (60:40, v/v), germinated pearl millet flour and barley malt extract. The substrate was fermented with NCDC 13. The growth pattern of the organism in the composite substrate was satisfactorily described by a logistic-type equation. Faecal samples were obtained from 18 Swiss albino male mice that had been fed on either a control diet ( = 6), a diet based on an unfermented substrate, and a diet based on a fermented substrate (six in each group) and analysed. The fermented substrate caused a significant ( < 0.05) increment in faecal lactobacilli with a concomitant reduction in faecal coliform counts. Further, the fermented substrate caused a significant ( < 0.05) and sustainable decline in faecal enzyme β-glucuronidase activity in the mouse model, which is commonly considered a marker of colon cancer. The reductions in the numbers of coliform bacteria in faeces might explain the decline in faecal enzyme activity. Beta-glucuronidase is an enzyme produced by faecal bacteria that converts procarcinogens to potential carcinogens from available substrates. Bifidobacteria and lactobacilli generally have lower activities of these harmful enzymes, whereas β-glucuronidase is produced in high amounts by enterobacteria and clostridia spp. The fermented substrate was developed into a sour and spicy beverage for human consumption. The average TS, fat, protein, ash, starch and fibre contents of the beverage were 11%, 0.3%, 2%, 0.61%, 1% and 1.4%, respectively. The sensory score with an overall acceptability of 7.5, revealed that the product was sensory acceptable.

The quality of colostrum is essential for the successful transfer of passive immunity and the early development of the immune system in newborns. This research was conducted with the aim of evaluating the agreement between measurements from different equipment: colostrometer, digital Brix refractometer and optical Brix refractometer, using fresh colostrum samples maintained at 21°C. Colostrum samples were collected from two farms ( = 31 and  = 193). Farm 1 included females from second to ninth lactation, comprising 15 Holstein Friesian (HF), 5 Jersey and 11 Holstein × Jersey crossbreeds. Farm 2 had HF heifers and cows from first to seventh lactation. Immunoglobulin content was assessed indirectly with a colostrometer and both types of Brix refractometers (digital and optical). For the correlation analysis, Pearson's product-moment method was used to assess the linear association between the equipment, followed by a Student's -test and comparison of the obtained values with specific correlation coefficients (50%, 70%, 90% and 99%). There was a 98% correlation between the refractometers on Farm 1, which was significantly higher ( < 0.0001) than the commonly used reference values for weak (50%), moderate (70%) and strong (90%) correlations, and statistically equivalent to a 99% correlation. This indicates a very high, positive linear association between the digital and optical Brix refractometers. On Farm 2, a 97% correlation was found between the refractometers, which was significantly higher ( < 0.0001) than the specific reference values of 50%, 70% and 90%, but significantly lower than a 99% correlation.

This research aimed to analyse the influence of honey supplementation on the technological, physicochemical, microbiological and sensory characteristics of stirred goat yoghurt containing C78, a novel probiotic strain, during 28 days of refrigerated storage. Four formulations of yoghurt were prepared, with different honey contents (0.5 %, 10 % and 15 %), and all samples were inoculated with the probiotic strain. The colour, syneresis (52.45 ± 0.19%), viscosity (28 ± 0.25 Pa.s) and sensory acceptance were improved in samples having 15% honey. The viability of C78 in all yoghurt samples presented counts above 7 log CFU/mL until the day-28 of refrigerated storage and honey increased the count of probiotic culture to 8.5 and 8.7 log CFU/mL at day-14 and day-21 of storage. These results reveal a successful incorporation of both probiotic and honey and promote the nutritional and sensory properties of the new yoghurt formulation.

A caseinomacropeptide (CMP) concentrate was produced from sweet whey by ultrafiltration (UF) and diafiltration (DF) using polyethersulfone (PES) membrane. Effects of the pH of whey feed and molecular weight cut-off of membrane (9 and 25 kDa) on permeate flux, recovery and purity of CMP were investigated. Before the UF, a pre-heat treatment at 90°C for 1 h and then acifidication to pH of 5 were applied to precipitate the major proteins in sweet whey. The pH value of UF feed was re-adjusted to different pH values (3, 4, 5, 7 and 9) to concentrate CMP molecule in the retentate and separate other whey proteins through permeate. Feed pH of 9 and 7 provided an adequate flux with 9 kDa- and 25 kDa-membrane, respectively. A volumetric concentration factor of 4 was reached with both membranes by UF and subsequent DF, but the process time was shorter with 25 kDa-membrane because of the higher permeate flux. One DF cycle was possible with 25 kDa-membrane as there was a substantial loss of CMP compared to four DF cycles with 9 kDa-membrane. About 58% of CMP in whey was recovered using 9 kDa-membrane while 33% of it was recovered with 25 kDa-membrane by the whole process. α-Lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, tyrosine and phenylalanine contents in the final concentrate, which are related to the purity of CMP were found similar in both cases. Sweet whey pre-treatment was the key point for purity of CMP concentrate before UF/DF. Both PES membranes can be used for the production of a CMP concentrate depending on desired recovery, composition and process time.

This research paper evaluated the effects of different concentrations of pitanga ( L.) bagasse (PB) on the chemical, technological, and sensory properties of Petit Suisse. Petit Suisse cheeses were formulated without PB (control) and with the enrichment of 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% PB, respectively. The cheeses were evaluated over a 21-day storage period. PB significantly increased Petit Suisse cheeses' fibre content and yield. There was also an increase in antioxidant activity. Higher levels of PB resulted in lower hardness and greater syneresis. In rheological measurements, the cheeses showed typical behaviour of a viscoelastic solid; However, the inclusion of PB altered the casein network, making the structure softer than the control. The PB does not affect the viability of and , maintaining the probiotic character of the product. The Petit Suisse with 1% PB resulted in greater sensory acceptance. In conclusion, adding pitanga bagasse to Petit Suisse cheese has been demonstrated to provide attractive, functional characteristics and sensory properties, opening new possibilities for product development in the dairy industry.

A systematic review and meta-analysis was undertaken to predict the effect of prepartum energy level on postpartum energy metabolism and milk production in dairy cows. In this systematic review, the criteria of PRISMA guidelines were followed: experimental evaluation of diets with different prepartum energy levels; presentation of initial, final, and/or total results; statement of treatment period including the last 21 days of the prepartum of period; and description of dry matter intake (DMI), milk production, blood parameters and feed efficiency data. A descriptive analysis was performed for better visualization of the data, and Pearson's correlation was used between the collected variables and the prepartum energy intake. The acquired data were subsequently analysed, employing a link function in a polynomial regression model. Prepartum energy intake does not influence DMI or energy balance in the postpartum phase. A higher-energy diet prepartum increased feed efficiency postpartum, accompanied by an increase in blood levels of BHB and NEFA. However, it also resulted in a decrease in milk production and blood glucose.

This study investigated yeast diversity and physicochemical changes during the production of Kargı Tulum cheese, a traditional Turkish cheese. Samples were collected at six key stages, from raw milk to the final product, and analysed for parameters including pH, titratable acidity, dry matter, fat, salt, protein, water-soluble protein and maturation index. During ripening, pH values ranged from 3.03 ± 0.017 to 3.70 ± 0.017, while titratable acidity increased from 0.91% ± 0.16% to 3.33% ± 0.17%. Dry matter and fat content increased significantly, reaching 50.41% ± 1.56% and 33.50% ± 5.41%, respectively. Salt content ranged from 0.58% ± 0.08% to 3.03% ± 0.58%, and protein content from 3.70% ± 0.93% to 20.63% ± 1.16%. The maturation index increased from 5.54% ± 0.71% to 16.26% ± 4.35%, indicating ongoing proteolysis. A total of 42 yeast isolates were phenotypically characterized and grouped by sugar fermentation ability, growth and salt tolerance. Internal transcribed spacer region sequencing identified key yeast species, including and . These species play significant roles in cheese maturation, contributing to flavour and texture. The results emphasize the importance of indigenous yeast populations in traditional cheese production and offer insights for improving fermentation and ripening processes to enhance cheese quality.

To determine the long-term effects of transition milk (TRANS), 30 female Holstein calves were allocated to two feeding groups (n = 15/group) after colostrum intake, receiving either 12 L of TRANS of their dam or 12 L of milk replacer (MR) per day. After 5 d of differential feeding, all calves received 12 L of MR/d. Until calving, heifers were weighed monthly. After calving, BW was recorded twice daily after milking. Body condition (BCS) and back fat thickness (BFT) were scored biweekly. Milk yield was recorded twice daily until d 200 in milk. Milk composition (protein, fat, and lactose), as well as somatic cell count (SCC) were analysed biweekly. Blood samples were taken 3 weeks before calving, at the day of calving and 3 weeks thereafter. Oxidative status was assessed as ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) for antioxidative capacity, and as reactive oxygen metabolites via the dROM assay. Oxidative damage of lipids was measured via the thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) assay; peroxidized proteins were assessed using the advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP) assay. Performance until first insemination did not differ between the groups, as well as BW development until the first weeks of lactation. From week 7 of lactation onwards, TRANS had less BW than MR heifers but tended to have a higher BCS. Milk yield and composition did not differ between both treatments. Marker for oxidative stress showed typical patterns of increasing antioxidants before calving and increase in prooxidants after calving in both treatment groups. The results indicate that feeding TRANS in the first 5 days of life had no long-term effects on performance in the first lactation, except for lower postpartum BW in heifers fed TRANS than MR, under the current rearing and management conditions.

This research article aimed to evaluate the effect of a commercial nutraceutical additive in milk replacer on the health and weight gain of dairy calves during the pre-weaning phase. A total of 126 female Holstein calves were randomly assigned to two groups: a treatment group (TRT, n = 63) receiving a commercial nutraceutical additive in the milk replacer, and a control group (CON, n = 63) receiving only the milk replacer. Health assessments included clinical diagnosis, Wisconsin scores and lung ultrasonography to assess the incidence and severity of respiratory and enteric diseases, as well as the average daily gain (ADG). The TRT group showed a reduction in the number of antibiotic treatments for respiratory diseases compared to the CON group. However, calves in the TRT group exhibited greater lung consolidation scores at 75 days of age and lower odds of recovery from pulmonary lesions. No differences were observed between groups in ADG and weaning weight. Additionally, the use of the product did not reduce the incidence or severity of diarrhoea. In fact, calves in the TRT group experienced the first episode of diarrhoea earlier than those in the CON group. These findings indicate that the nutraceutical additive did not contribute to improved enteric or respiratory health. Under real farm conditions, the use of the applied nutraceutical does not consistently lead to beneficial or additive effects across health parameters. These results underscore the importance of context-specific evaluation, as well as the consideration that formulation and environmental factors can significantly influence the outcomes of such interventions.

This study was undertaken to investigate the molecular detection of biofilm-producing () from goat mastitis. An overall 384 milk samples were initially screened for subclinical mastitis (SCM) followed by molecular characterization of isolates. The biofilm formation was assessed using Congo Red agar (CRA), a microtiter plate and the presence of the gene. The results revealed a molecular prevalence of 53.24% (115/216) for pathogenic in milk samples of goats. The phenotypic prevalence of biofilm production by CRA and microtitre methods was recorded to be 38.26% (44/115) and 26.96% (31/115) respectively, while the molecularly confirmed biofilm-forming through polymerase chain reaction targeting gene was 58.26% (67/115). The phylogenetic analysis of gene revealed high identity between sequences of study isolates and the isolates of other neighbouring countries. The antibiogram profiling of pathogenic showed increased resistance to cefoxitin and oxytetracycline followed by gentamicin. Out of 115, 45.22% (52/115) were declared as multiple drug resistant with multiple antibiotic resistance index greater than 0.2. The study concluded that biofilm-producing strains are considered to be a common cause of SCM in dairy goats of Pakistan and biofilm formation is associated with multidrug resistance of study isolates.

Probiotics, defined as live microorganisms that confer health benefits when administrated in adequate amounts, including genera such as and the fungal strain . Extensive research has demonstrated their beneficial effects, including vitamin synthesis, inhibition of pathogenic bacterial colonization, antimicrobial activity through bacteriocins and other bioactive compounds, and modulation of immune responses via secretory IgA antibodies. These attributes render probiotics promising candidates for managing antibiotic-associated colitis, post-surgical recovery and various diarrhoeal conditions. However, concerns regarding the safety of probiotics have emerged, with reports of sepsis in immunocompromised individuals and neonates, emphasizing the need for rigorous risk assessment. Similarly, postbiotic bioactive metableelites and components derived from probiotics have gained the attention of the scientific community all over the globe as potential alternatives to live probiotics. The International Scientific Association of Probiotics and Prebiotics defines postbiotics as 'a preparation of inanimate microorganisms and/or their components that confers a health benefit on the host'. Unlike probiotics, postbiotics do not require viability to exert their effects and include bioactive compounds such as short-chain fatty acids, peptides and exopolysaccharides. These molecules exhibit immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, making them promising candidates for clinical applications, particularly in immunocompromised patients where live probiotics may pose risks. Despite their recognized benefits, both probiotics and postbiotics require further investigation to optimize their therapeutic potential while mitigating associated risks. This review critically evaluates the advantages, limitations and emerging applications of probiotics and postbiotics, emphasizing the necessity of rigorous scientific validation to ensure their safety and efficacy. The pros and cons of probiotic microorganisms.