Children who speak African American English (AAE) may have an elevated likelihood of being diagnosed with language disorders. Traditional language sample analysis (LSA) metrics, such as Developmental Sentence Scoring (DSS), are based on the morphosyntax of General American English (GAE) and may not accurately reflect the language abilities of AAE-speaking children. We examined the effectiveness of computerized Black English Sentence Scoring (BESS) in distinguishing between typically developing (TD) and developmental language disorder (DLD) in AAE- and GAE-speaking children compared with DSS.Language samples from 88 children (22 DLD, 66 TD) ages 5;0 to 7;02, comprising 44 AAE-speaking children and 44 GAE-speaking children, were analyzed using Computerized Language ANalysis (CLAN) DSS and BESS options.Results of a two-level ANOVA did not show evidence of any effect by dialect and scoring method. Logistic regression analyses revealed that both DSS and BESS exhibited poor classification accuracy, suggesting that they are statistically unreliable methods of DLD identification in children who speak either AAE or GAE.Although BESS is intended to minimize linguistic bias compared with DSS, neither approach yielded adequate diagnostic accuracy in this study. However, both can provide valuable information on grammatical features in a child's expressive language to guide intervention.

Speech language pathologists (SLPs) are charged with providing equitable, clinically competent services for all individuals, regardless of their cultural or linguistic background. One practice known to be culturally fair is the use of narrative assessments. However, given the persistent emphasis on "standard" English in written communication, it is critical to examine how SLPs perceive and evaluate the writing of students who use diverse linguistic variations.In this mixed methods study, 42 Black and White SLPs rated the written narratives (one fictional, one personal) of two second-grade Black students who used African American English (AAE) and general American English (GAE). SLPs provided explanations detailing their rationale for their ratings.Findings indicated that there were no significant race-based differences for ratings. Fictional narratives were rated more favorably than personal narratives, and narratives written by the GAE speaker were rated more favorably than the AAE speaker. Qualitative analyses supported these findings as justifications largely involved grammar, followed by punctuation and writing conventions.These findings highlight the potential influence of pervasive language ideologies that favor features of GAE among SLPs. SLPs' justifications focused on components of macrostructure and microstructure, with an emphasis on microstructure (e.g., grammar and punctuation), suggesting that SLPs prioritize "correctness" over content.

The purpose of this clinical seminar is to clarify terminology and promote accurate understanding of linguistic concepts and use of related terminology among speech-language pathologists, linguists, educators, researchers, and interdisciplinary teams. In this paper, we clarify two phenomena, verbal /s/ and code shifting that have been used in both child and adult African American Language (AAL) literature, and explain the implications that clarifications have for more careful descriptions of child AAL. In addition, we highlight aspectual forms and variable use of constructions in caregiver speech as a means of exemplifying patterns of variation in children's input that should be taken into consideration in their development of AAL. The paper concludes with implications and recommendations for assessment and future research.

This study reviews the sociocultural, linguistic, and historical foundations of standardized testing with African American children who speak African American English. Challenges associated with the use of traditional models of assessment that rely heavily on the use of standardized assessments have contributed to persisting disproportionalities in speech-language clinical and eligibility decisions. Advantages of using alternative assessment frameworks that rely less on standardized tests and more on the contextualization of the individual child, taking relevant sociocultural influences into account, are proposed.

The purpose of this article is to provide the readers of the forum with an overview of research on African American children's language and connection to literacy, review how literate language has been traditionally defined and conceptualized, describe areas of concern when using traditional perspectives on literate language to evaluate the language of African American English (AAE) speakers, and recommend assessment approaches and strategies that allow for a comprehensive assessment that is informed by sociocultural orientations to literacy.

This study investigates how educators perceive African American English (AAE) and whether those perceptions affect special education referrals. Using a mixed-methods design, 41 practicing educators evaluated vignettes written in both AAE and Mainstream American English by fictional third-grade students. Although most participants expressed favorable views of AAE as a legitimate dialect, vignettes written in AAE were 6.5 times more likely to be referred for special education. This disconnect between stated beliefs and referral behavior suggests that language differences may still be misinterpreted as a disorder. Findings highlight the need for targeted professional development, culturally responsive referral safeguards, and instruction that validates dialectal diversity. The study contributes to broader discussions about equity, disproportionality in special education, and the application of raciolinguistic frameworks in educational decision-making.

This study explores the relation between oral language, spoken dialect variation, and reading achievement among Black children from low-income backgrounds, with an emphasis on identifying within-group variability. Few studies have examined how these variables interact to influence literacy outcomes. Using data from 797 children in Grades 1 to 4 (ages: 6-11 years), we conducted a two-part analysis. First, confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the structure of language, dialect variation, and reading performance. The study found that while these skills are interconnected, they remain distinct constructs. Second, latent profile analysis was used to explore heterogeneity in language and reading skills within the sample, revealing distinct profiles of strengths and weaknesses. While children with higher dialect density of African American English were more likely to show lower literacy performance, dialect variation alone did not predict specific literacy profiles. These findings suggest that oral language proficiency and dialect variation should be considered when designing interventions to improve reading outcomes for Black children. This study contributes to the understanding of how dialect variation influences reading achievement and highlights the need for culturally responsive literacy instruction that values linguistic diversity.

We examined the of-preposition in language samples because it is a highly variable feature that can be marked or unmarked (e.g., "out [of] the door") depending on context. Children who speak African American English (AAE) produce unmarked of-prepositions in contexts that are universal across AAE and General American English (GAE; e.g., "out [of] the window") and in contexts specific to the AAE dialect (e.g., "out [of] the car"). Guidance in the literature on this variability is limited for language sample analysis. Participants included 113 children who spoke AAE. We examined contexts with unmarked of-prepositions in narrative language samples in a subset of 72 children (mean age = 53.57 months). Samples were coded for AAE features based on the published literature. Contexts with an unmarked of-preposition were coded as universal (present in AAE and GAE) or as a feature of AAE. We calculated an estimate of AAE feature use in two ways: one that erroneously assumed that all of-preposition variability (including universal) is AAE, and one that more precisely identified AAE features. Analyses revealed significant differences in the measurement of AAE use. Careful analysis of dialect-specific and universal features of AAE grammar, including the of-preposition, is needed for reliable assessments.

Dialect discovery worksheets focus on children's dialect-appropriate form productivity and sensitivity to linguistic context within a dialect. Focusing on tense and agreement (T/A) forms in African American English (AAE), we demonstrate how these worksheets can be used to reveal grammar strengths in children with typical development (TD) and grammar weaknesses in those with developmental language disorder (DLD).The participants were four kindergartners who spoke AAE (two males and two females; two DLD; two TD). The data were archival and came from an elicitation task. Using the worksheets, we categorized and quantified the participant's T/A dialect-general overt forms, dialect-specific overt forms, and zero forms by linguistic context.The TD participants demonstrated form productivity, producing significant numbers of T/A dialect-general overt, dialect-specific overt, and zero forms. They also varied their overt forms and zero forms in ways that demonstrated sensitivity to linguistic context. Those with DLD did not demonstrate form productivity, and they lacked variation in form use by linguistic context.Dialect discovery worksheets provide useful information about children's grammar systems within the context of their dialect(s). These worksheets should be considered for clinical practice and preprofessional student training.

There are identifiable gaps between speech-language pathologists' (SLPs) beliefs and their implementation of best practices for dual language learners (DLLs). In the present study, we examined how early intervention (EI) SLPs' backgrounds, experiences, and practice settings influenced their beliefs, knowledge, and use of best practices when assessing DLLs. A survey of 134 EI SLPs was used to examine their assessment procedures for a DLL case scenario, beliefs about assessment practices, and knowledge of cultural and linguistic influences on DLLs' language development. Participants also provided information about their backgrounds and practice settings. Statistical analyses explored relationships between these factors and variables such as years since graduation, sociolinguistic context of practice setting, and continuing education on DLL assessment knowledge and practices. Results showed gaps between beliefs and practices and deficits in knowledge about cultural and linguistic influences on DLLs. Knowledge was negatively correlated with time since graduation and positively correlated with the proportion of DLLs on caseloads. SLPs in linguistically diverse areas had higher knowledge scores, while best practice use was tied to the percentage of DLLs on caseloads. Continued education, removal of barriers, and support are crucial, particularly for EI SLPs in less diverse contexts or with more time since graduation.

Dialect differences between African American English (AAE) and Mainstream American English (MAE) impact how children comprehend sentences. However, research on real-time sentence processing has the potential to reveal the underlying causes of these differences. This study used eye tracking, which measures how children interpret linguistic features as a sentence unfolds, and examined how AAE- and MAE-speaking children processed "was" and "were," a morphology feature produced differently in MAE and AAE. Fifty-nine participants, ages 7;8 to 11;0 years, completed standardized measures of dialect density and receptive vocabulary. In the eye tracking task, participants heard sentences in MAE with either unambiguous (e.g., "Jeremiah") or ambiguous (e.g., "Carolyn May"), subjects and eye movements were measured to singular (image of one person) or plural referents (image of two people). After the onset of the auxiliary verb, AAE-speaking children were sensitive to "was" and "were" when processing sentences but were less likely than MAE-speaking children to use "was" as a basis for updating initial predictions of plural referents. Among African American children, dialect density was predictive of sensitivity to "was" when processing sentences. Results suggest that linguistic mismatch impacts how contrastive verb morphology is used to update initial interpretations of MAE sentences.

This study applies a Black disability political approach to directly confront the shortcomings of the social model in affirming the communication of Black, disabled African American English (AAE)-speaking preschoolers. In a departure from clinical approaches to effective communication, this study assumes communication breakdowns as a central feature of interaction and explores strategies of repair and negotiation for redefining what makes communication effective.This study presents two case studies of Black, disabled AAE-speaking 4-year-olds. Their play samples are qualitatively analyzed to determine how they use strategies of repair and negotiation to achieve communicative goals and establish connections with their communication partners.The Black, disabled AAE-speaking 4-year-olds in this study used a variety of repair and negotiation strategies, including requesting a repair, responding to other-initiated repair requests, self-repair, co-constructing meaning, and seeking assistance. Their use of these strategies does not always fit into clinical frames of defining effective communication. Yet, the children demonstrate an awareness of and engagement with shared goals surrounding interaction and connection.Centering the languaging practices of multiply-marginalized disabled children is an opportunity for expanding our clinical approaches and our own communication practices to affirm the agency of the children with whom we make meaning.

School-based speech-language pathologists (SLPs) from four midwestern states were surveyed about their knowledge and confidence regarding literacy intervention. To obtain accounts of lived experiences, SLPs who completed the survey were invited to a follow-up interview. Fourteen SLPs completed interviews with a member of the research team via a recorded Zoom meeting. The interviews were approximately an hour long and each question was presented on a shared screen. Interview data were transcribed and then analyzed using thematic analysis. Five overarching themes emerged: (1) SLPs are responsible for language services to support student literacy; (2) barriers of time, administrator knowledge, and instructional tools that support SLP literacy instruction; (3) collaboration and training would improve confidence; (4) how multi-tiered systems of support and Title I impact SLP literacy services; and (5) the role of other team members in literacy services. Overall, SLPs know that they can play an important role in literacy assessment and intervention but are unsure of how their specific skills fit into the greater school context. Training may improve confidence in serving students with literacy needs differently from other service providers. Future work could explore partnerships between SLPs and other professionals to best serve students with literacy needs.

Communication partner training (CPT) is an evidence-based treatment approach, applied when working with people with traumatic brain injury (pwTBI). However, all existing programs are available in English only. This article focuses on surveying people in China about their awareness of CPT for pwTBI, and the perceived benefits and challenges of implementing CPT programs, with a view to providing recommendations for optimal services. The authors surveyed 339 medical professional ( = 169) and non-medical professional ( = 170) communication partners to obtain their awareness about CPT. Further, they were asked to identify the potential barriers and benefits of implementing CPT. Potential components that should be considered when developing a CPT program for pwTBI in China were also identified by the communication partners. This article reported low awareness levels about CPT for both medical professional (33.33%) and non-medical professional (22.14%) communication partners. Both groups reported interest in opportunities to receive CPT. The findings of this study will be useful as a guide when developing CPT programs for pwTBI in China. The findings also have implications for the global translation of CPT programs to other languages and countries where they may have a positive impact on the lives of pwTBI and their communication partners.

Various researchers have identified naming speed () as a predictor for reading skills and dyslexia. Although fewer studies investigate the connection between RAN and writing acquisition, their results suggest a connection between alphanumeric RAN tasks and spelling skills. Since the cognitive processes relevant to RAN have not yet been researched, it is unclear which components connect spelling performance and naming speed. Various authors propose a connection through orthographic and visual knowledge. This study investigated whether and how alphanumeric (letters and digits) and non-alphanumeric RAN (colors, objects) relate to spelling skills in German. Therefore, we investigated naming speed abilities in German 8- to 11-year-olds ( = 103) with pure developmental dysgraphia (i.e., isolated spelling deficit without reading deficit;  = 22), combined developmental dysgraphia and dyslexia ( = 26), and typical spelling and reading skills ( = 55). We found significant differences between children with pure developmental dysgraphia and children with typical reading and spelling skills for alphanumeric, but not non-alphanumeric RAN tasks. Our findings suggest that alphanumeric RAN, in contrast to non-alphanumeric RAN, is related to spelling. The study thus reveals the relevant difference between alphanumeric and non-alphanumeric RAN tasks and points toward distinct underlying cognitive mechanisms.

It is no secret that the overwhelming majority (91%) of certified speech-language pathologists (SLPs) identify as White, while Black SLPs make up less than 4% of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association's (ASHA) member and affiliate profile (ASHA, 2022). On the other hand, Black students are disproportionately represented in special education programs (17%; NCES, 2024) and the majority (64%) qualify for services with speech-language (or related) diagnoses as of the 2022-2023 school year (NCES, 2024). These statistics suggest that Black students will likely encounter clinicians whose racial, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds differ from their own. Undoubtedly, the data have sparked conversations in the literature regarding the importance of cultural competence, cultural humility, and cultural sensitivity among therapists who serve racially and ethnically diverse clients. For instance, the discussion of SLPs' roles in addressing educational disparities for under-represented populations requires a level of self-awareness and cultural sensitivity that not every practitioner claims to possess. Further discussion regarding the pursuit of cultural competence is needed to contribute to a deeper understanding of clinical outcomes associated with cultural incongruence in SLPs.

This tutorial aimed to bridge the gap in the literature by presenting historical and contextual backgrounds on Caribbean Creoles and their speakers while examining the potential benefits and practical implications of incorporating translanguaging into speech-language intervention for children from Caribbean Creole-speaking backgrounds. Utilizing the principles of translanguaging, this tutorial introduces the Translanguaging Speech-Language Intervention Framework (TSI Framework) for clinical speech-language-hearing intervention. The TSI is proposed as a useful tool for working with Caribbean Creole children, though it is applicable to other groups as well. Incorporating TSI into intervention with Caribbean Creole speakers allows for bilingual children to develop and grow their unitary complex language system, equips service providers with a tool to provide culturally responsive service, fosters a strength-based approach for bilingual intervention and assessment, supports families and encourages home language maintenance, and promotes and advocates for linguistic justice.

This article explores the linguistic and cultural significance of Gullah Geechee, an English-based Creole language, and its speakers as bilingual users. It examines the historical roots, linguistic features, and sociocultural importance of Gullah Geechee, which emerged from the interaction of African languages and English during the transatlantic slave trade. The study highlights Gullah Geechee's role as a linguistic variety used by African Americans, focusing on its phonological, syntactical, and lexical traits while challenging the marginalization of both Gullah Geechee and African American English as "broken" English. This article also looks at generational shifts in language use and identity among Gullah Geechee speakers, from historical stigmatization to a modern revival of cultural pride. It advocates for recognizing Gullah Geechee and African American English as legitimate languages, promoting culturally responsive teaching and bidialectal education. Emphasizing the need for systemic change, this article calls for the validation of heritage languages to support linguistic justice, academic success, and cultural preservation. Through its exploration of language structures, educational frameworks, and social attitudes, this work contributes to discussions on bilingualism and the preservation of marginalized dialects in American society.