This study investigates the effects of microwave radiation on Euglena gracilis (Euglena) during brief exposure periods, as well as the subsequent enhancement of growth under different conditions. The growth patterns of Euglena in these environments were systematically analyzed. Additionally, the study examined whether the growth rate of microwave-irradiated heterotrophic cultures of Euglena could be improved with 24-hour or shorter light exposure, which is an important factor in the industrial production of this organism. Results indicated that a 1-minute pulse of microwave radiation caused a twofold increase in growth compared to the control, even under autotrophic culture conditions without added CO. Furthermore, there was a significant 2.6-fold increase in growth when daily light exposure was reduced from 24 to 10 hours.

Given the global challenge of drug-resistant pathogens, essential oils would be new pharmacological supplements for antibacterial action with low toxicity and low or no resistance. This study investigated the physical properties, chemical profile and antimicrobial activity of native essential oils to develop antibiotic alternatives. Specifically, essential oils were extracted from Dendranthema indicum, Orixa japonica, Chamaecyparis pisifera var. filifera, Peucedanum japonicum, and Pinus strobus using hydrodistillation. The antimicrobial activity of essential oils against Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumonia was assessed by Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC). The essential oils from D. indicum with blue colour showed lower b* values (3.21±0.78) than other species (14.94±0.51-15.84±0.78). D. indicum oil showed the highest values in relative density (0.920±0.000g/mL) and refractive index (1.493±0.000nD) among the other oils. These results might be attributed to the major component of camphor in oils, known for its high density and refractive index. C. pisifera had the highest oil yield (4.01±0.17% DW) among the other species (0.36 ± 0.13-0.78±0.18% DW). Both C. pisifera and P. japonicum oils were rich in monoterpenes (81.09-91.06%), such as 3-carene (34.28%) and β-pinene (47.37%). Yet, the other oils were abundant in sesquiterpenes (13.82-36.45%). For example, the major components of D. indicum oils were germacrene-D (16.56%), followed by caryophyllene (9.20%). D. indicum and O. japonica oils were particularly effective in inhibiting both bacterial growths (MIC:0.5-1.5% and MBC:4-8%), whereas the other essential oils might require higher concentrations for bactericidal effects (MIC:1-3% and MBC:3- ≥ 12%). The strong antibacterial effect of D. indicum and O. japonica oils might be attributed to the major components of camphor (23.05%) and linalool (10.92%), respectively. Therefore, D. indicum and O. japonica essential oils would exhibit strong antibacterial activity, highlighting a potential antimicrobial agent in food and health industrial resources.

This study evaluated the incorporation of linoleic acid (LA) into canola oil (CO) through enzymatic interesterification reactions aided by microwave irradiation and catalyzed by TL IM lipase enzyme (sn-1,3). To optimize the process and identify the best reaction conditions, an experimental design utilizing a central composite experiment was implemented to analyze the effects of time (1.5-3.5 h), the reactant ratio LA:CO (0.3:1) and temperature (50-75°C). The linoleic acid (LA) extract was obtained from grapeseeds through extraction and purification techniques. Under optimal conditions (73°C, 48 min and an LA:CO ratio of 1.2), a 69.80% incorporation of linoleic acid was achieved. Moreover, the reactant ratio emerged as the most crucial factor shaping the outcome of the reaction, underscoring its vital role in achieving optimal results. The quality analysis of the crude oil, obtained as a reaction product, revealed a variation in the saponification index (177.5 ± 0.7 mg KOH/g), with respect to the starting substrates, indicating modifications in its composition. This value is higher than the saponification index reported for canola oil (172.82 ± 1.92 mg KOH/g) but lower than that of grapeseed oil (184.56 ± 0.45 mg KOH/g). This variation may be attributed to differences in fatty acid composition; specifically, the crude oil contains a lower proportion of long-chain fatty acids compared to canola oil. This study emphasizes the potential of grapeseeds as a sustainable source of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Additionally, the use of microwave irradiation has proven to be a viable alternative to traditional methods by reducing reaction times, minimizing energy consumption and increasing yield percentages. These advancements support green chemistry, the circular economy and the creation of value-added products that can benefit various industries.

This study aimed to examine the changes and correlations between fatty acids and volatile organic compounds in ready-to-eat fried loach (RTE-FL) over 10 days of storage by Schaal oven tests. The results showed that the peroxide value (POV) increased to 16.64 mg/100 g within first 4 days of storage and decreased over the next 6 days. The thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) value increased gradually from 0.51 mg MDA/kg to 1.45 mg MDA/kg, while the sensory evaluation score showed the opposite trend. OPLS-DA combined with ROAV analysis revealed the 7 flavor substances with VIP ≥ 1 and ROAV ≥ 1 were identified as key differential flavor compounds. Furthermore, γ-linolenic acid (C18:3n6), linoleic acid (C18:2n6c), arachidonic acid (C20:1), pentadecenoic acid (C15:1), heneicosanoic acid (C21:0) and palmitic acid (C16:0) were significantly correlated with substances with rancid and pungent odors such as Hexanal-D (ROAV=29.29-62.09), Butanal-D (ROAV=15.95-35.59), 2-methyl propanal (ROAV=332.53-411.37), and 2-methylbutanal-D (ROAV=69.67-204.73). These findings provide valuable insights into flavor changes in RTE-FL during storage.

The root of Rehmannia glutinosa is an ingredient in herbal medicine used for tonifying blood in Japanese Kampo medicine and traditional Chinese medicine. Biological investigations of the roots have been well reported; however, those of the leaves are limited. In this study, we examined the potential value of R. glutinosa leaves, focusing on their antioxidant activity and inhibition of advanced glycation end product formation. The leaf extract exhibited both antioxidant and anti-glycation activities in all assay systems, and the potencies of the leaves were stronger than those of the roots. The bioassay-guided fractionation led to the isolation of eight compounds from the ethyl acetate fraction. Among them and their related compounds, acteoside (3), luteolin (6), and echinacoside (12) exhibited DPPH radical scavenging, copper ion reduction, and SOD-like activities. Furthermore, compound 6, apigenin (7), and chrysoeriol (8) exhibited anti-glycation activities. The leaf extract tended to contain higher amounts of most analytes, especially compounds 3, 6, and 7, suggesting that these compounds contributed to the antioxidant or anti-glycation activities of R. glutinosa leaves. These findings will aid in the effective use of R. glutinosa leaves.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a neurotrophic factor essential for brain function, is also produced in the kidneys and reportedly exerts kidney protective effects. However, whether renal BDNF levels decrease in chronic kidney disease (CKD) remains elusive. To investigate how CKD affects renal BDNF levels, we used an adenine-induced murine CKD model. Administration of 0.1% adenine solutions via free drinking for 1 week resulted in a marked reduction of BDNF expression in the kidneys. Our results suggest that CKD progression reduces kidney BDNF levels and that this model could be useful for developing BDNF-targeted strategies for CKD prevention and therapy.

In this study, we aimed to elucidate the effect of gelatin, a water-phase component, on the flavor release mechanism in water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions, used as low-fat spread model. Rapeseed oil served as the oil phase, and monoolein was employed as the emulsifier. Two W/O emulsion samples were prepared: UMG, containing only sodium chloride in the aqueous phase, and Gel-UMG, containing both gelatin and sodium chloride. Subsequently, model flavor components were incorporated into these emulsions, and the influence of gelatin in the aqueous phase on flavor release was evaluated using SPME-GC/MS. Analysis of the flavor components revealed that, in the adsorption temperature range of 30°C-50°C, fatty acid release from Gel-UMG was substantially lower than that from UMG. The interactions between gelatin and the flavor components were examined using a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). Fatty acids, including propanoic and butanoic acids, interacted with gelatin, increasing the resonance frequency, whereas other flavor components with similar hydrophobicity (1-butanol, 2-butanol, butanal, ethyl acetate, and γ-hexalactone) showed no interaction, as indicated by the unchanged resonance frequency. Moreover, electrical conductivity, interfacial storage modulus, and water droplet size measurements collectively suggested the presence of gelatin at the oil-water interface. These findings indicate that gelatin and fatty acids in the aqueous phase of W/O emulsions may interact via the oil-water interface. This interaction likely inhibits their release into the vapor phase, decreasing the amount of fatty acids released from Gel-UMG, as detected using GC/MS analysis.

This study utilized a microwave-induced in-liquid plasma (MILP) device to treat water contaminated with microplastics (MPs) and metal ions. The performance of the device was initially assessed using a rhodamine-B (RhB) aqueous dye solution in a circulation-type reactor, yielding a greater degradation efficiency compared to conventional batch treatments. Polyethylene (PE) particles (diameter, 20 μm; average molecular weight, 1.8 million) served as a model for MPs to evaluate their disposal and degradation under continuous circulation treatment. A plasma-induced polymer gel synthesis method was employed to remove metal ions, achieving over 80% removal of copper, tin, lead, and mercury within 5 minutes. These findings highlight the significant potential of MILP technology for innovative advanced water treatment applications.

Hydrophilicity and side effects are the major problems in the effective and safe use of 5-fluorouracil (5FL) for skin cancer. Lipid-based nanocarriers, especially nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), show specific advantages of high drug loading and low drug leakage for successful delivery of 5FL. Therefore, a lipid-nanogel system of 5FL-loaded NLC (5FL-LNG) for topical delivery was aimed at in the present study. For NLC development, a mixture of turmeric oil and labrasol (70:30) was determined as oil, and then solid lipid (tefose 1500) and surfactant (Tween 80) were selected. Central composite design was used for formulation optimization. Design suggested a formulation prepared with 1.5% binary mixture, 6% surfactant, and 8 min of sonication time for the optimized 5FL-NLC. Optimized 5FL-NLC had particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and transmittance values of 223.47±2.42 nm, -14.90±0.95 mV, 78.81±1.63%, and 94.79±0.58%, respectively. The DSC revealed homogeneous and amorphous nature of 5FL-NLC. 5FL-LNG formulation was prepared with 1% w/w Carbopol 934 and compared with conventional Carbopol 934 gel of 5FL. Spreadability and extrudability were better for 5FL-LNG and were further confirmed by texture analysis. In vitro release and skin permeation (both in vitro and ex vivo) of 5FL was better for 5FL-LNG compared to the conventional gel. Dermatokinetic data showed that C and AUC values were significantly higher for 5FL-LNG. Confocal laser scanning microscopy confirmed noticeable betterment of 5FL delivery to skin epidermis and dermis from 5FL-LNG compared to conventional gel. Overall, developed 5FL-LNG formulation demonstrated its significant results for effective topical application and, therefore, could be subjected to further pre-clinical and clinical studies.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS), a leading non-communicable disease (NCD), has become a pronounced health problem. It is typified by obesity, insulin insensitivity, hypertension, and dyslipidemia, with obesity playing a central pathogenic role. Excessive adipose tissue accumulation promotes chronic inflammation, insulin resistance, and widespread metabolic dysregulation, significantly increasing the risk of systemic diseases. We established a MetS rat model via a high-fat/high-glucose (HFHG) diet. Rats were assigned to three groups: a normal control (Control), a MetS model (MetS), and a MetS group was treated with Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (MetS + Omega-3 PUFAs). Compared to Controls, MetS rats exhibited marked increases in body weight (over 20%), triglycerides (TG), insulin (INS), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), total cholesterol (TC), homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and fasting plasma glucose (FPG), confirming successful model induction. Histological analysis revealed pronounced aortic endothelial fibrosis in MetS rats, which was notably alleviated by omega-3 PUFA treatment. Oxidative-stress markers were significantly improved in the "MetS + Omega-3 PUFAs" group relative to the untreated MetS group. Additionally, lipid parameters (TG, TC, LDL-C) and insulin levels were substantially reduced, approaching those of the Control group. Collectively, these findings indicate that omega-3 PUFAs mitigate oxidative stress, correct metabolic dysfunction, and attenuate vascular fibrosis in MetS rats, underscoring their therapeutic potential in managing dysfunctional metabolism.

The chemical composition of the essential oil from the leaves of Vachellia tortilis, collected from Tunisia, at the three developmental stages, was analysed by GC/MS. Seventy-five compounds were identified. GC-MS analysis showed qualitative and quantitative variation during Vachellia tortilis seed maturation. The essential oil was dominated by a large amount of apocarotenes (38.6-47.1%) and non-terpene derivatives (34.7-49.6%). The major components of the oil were (E)-geranylacetone (15.6-25.3%), guaiacylacetone (4.7-12.9%), p-menth-4-en-3-one (3.1-10.9%), cis-2-methyl-3-oxo-cyclohexane-butanal (4.5-8.7%), (E)-β-ionone (5.4-8.2%) and hexahydrofarnesylacetone (2.4-5.6%). The highest antioxidant activity was exhibited by essential oils at intermediate stage. Essential oils at immature and intermediate stages showed higher antimicrobial activity than those at mature stage. The present findings allowed us to choose the optimal harvesting period to have the maximum effectiveness of the essential oil in terms of biological activities.

This study provides a comprehensive investigation of the phytochemical composition, antioxidant capacity, and enzyme inhibition properties of Equisetum ramosissimum, a medicinal plant traditionally used in Turkey. The main aim was to characterize its bioactive compounds and evaluate their biological relevance using modern analytical techniques. Ethanolic extracts of the plant were analyzed by LC-MS/MS, enabling the identification and quantification of 13 phenolic compounds, including kaempferol (1458.11 µg/L), vanillic acid (1002.26 µg/L), and resveratrol (424.12 µg/L). Antioxidant activity was assessed through DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and CUPRAC assays, where the extract demonstrated strong radical scavenging and metal reducing capacity. Enzyme inhibition studies revealed significant inhibitory effects on AChE, BChE, and α-glucosidase, with IC values comparable to standard inhibitors. These findings indicate that E. ramosissimum is a rich source of phenolic compounds with strong antioxidants and enzyme inhibitory properties. The originality of this work lies in its systematic evaluation of Turkish E. ramosissimum populations, highlighting their potential as natural therapeutic agents for managing oxidative stress-related diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and diabetes.

Organic-inorganic halide perovskite materials have attracted significant attention in the field of optoelectronics, and their single crystals, in particular, exhibit high carrier mobility. However, because single crystals were typically grown from highly polar donor solvents, the crystallization process was complicated by the formation of complexes, solvated crystals, and polymorphs. Despite these complexities, many studies have relied on empirical trial-and-error approaches, without systematically integrating the crystallization process into crystal engineering through phase diagrams. In this study, we constructed a phase diagram of methylammonium lead iodide perovskite and clarified its solubility and precipitation curves. From van't Hoff analysis, we determined the enthalpy and entropy of dissolution. Based on the supersaturation conditions obtained from the precipitation and solubility curves, we successfully grew single crystals. These insights are expected to provide important guidance for the fabrication of solar cells, photodetectors, and integrated devices.

Fish oil contains not only major fatty acids with double bonds at the n-3, n-6, n-7, and n-9 positions but also those with a double bond at the n-1 position, such as 6,9,12,15-hexadecatetraenoic acid (C16:4 n-1; HDTA). However, intracellular bioconversion and metabolic fate of n-1 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) remain unclear. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to assess the intracellular bioconversion and metabolic fate of HDTA and its metabolite, 8,11,14,17- octadecatetraenoic acid (C18:4 n-1; ODTA), using HepG2 cells. Based on the results of cell viability and cytotoxicity assays for HDTA and ODTA, the concentration of each fatty acid supplemented in the experiments was set at 10 μM. HepG2 cell culture with HDTA revealed C20:4 n-1 as a new HDTA metabolite, along with previously reported ODTA. Our findings suggest that the HDTA taken up by HepG2 cells undergoes elongation to form ODTA and C20:4 n-1. Following supplementation with HDTA, ODTA, and 5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5 n-3; EPA), fatty acids disappeared from the culture medium within 24 h. Notably, the total relative level of HDTA and its metabolites, including ODTA and C20:4 n-1 in HDTA- and ODTA-supplemented cells were significantly lower than the total relative level of EPA and its metabolites, including 7,10,13,16,19-docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5 n-3), C24:6 n-3, and 4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6 n-3) in the EPA-supplemented cells. Except for a portion that was intracellularly elongated, most HDTA was taken up by HepG2 cells and may undergo rapid fatty acid β-oxidation. However, RNA-sequencing and real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed no significant changes in fatty acid β-oxidation-related gene expression levels in HDTA-supplemented cells. Collectively, these results provide novel insights into the intracellular bioconversion mechanisms and metabolic fate of HDTA and ODTA in HepG2 cells, suggesting that the metabolic fate of n-1 PUFA is distinct from that of common PUFA.

Fat bloom is a serious problem that occurs when chocolate and related products are stored at high temperatures for long periods. Various techniques have been used to retard and prevent the fat bloom phenomenon. In this study, we investigated the ability of a new type of symmetrical triacylglycerol, 1,3-dipalmitoyl-2-palmitoleoyl-sn-glycerol (PPoP), containing palmitic acid (P) at positions sn-1 and sn-3 and palmitoleic acid (Po) at position sn-2, to retard or prevent fat bloom formation. An XRD study of cocoa butter (CB) and TAG mixtures of CB/PPoP and CB/POP revealed that CB and CB/POP mixtures transformed into polymorphic Form VI under conditions where the storage temperature was gradually raised from 20°C to 28°C over a period of 100 days. In contrast, the XRD patterns of CB/PPoP mixtures after 100 days of storage was similar to that of Form V of CB, and unlike that of Form VI of CB. These results are the first to indicate that the adding PPoP may prevent or delay the polymorphic transformation of CB from Form V to Form VI. We also investigated the physical properties and fat bloom stability of cocoa butter equivalent (CBE) and dark chocolates made with different PPoP concentration and found that the solid fat contents of CBE decreased with increasing amounts of PPoP. the addition of PPoP tended to soften the dark chocolate. Finally, we found that the fat bloom formation of dark chocolate under thermal cycle storage conditions between 18°C-30.5°C and 20°C-32°C could be retarded by adding of PPoP. However, further studies are warranted to elucidate the PPoP-induced retarding mechanisms during the transition from Form V to Form VI.

We investigated the dynamics of surface tension in binary nonionic surfactant mixtures in aqueous solutions using a custom-made sessile bubble tensiometer. When the bubble surface is initially saturated with tetraethyleneglycol monooctylether (C8E4), adding a second surfactant, octyl-β-D-maltopyranoside (OM), to the adsorbed film results in a straightforward, gradual decrease in surface tension. Conversely, if the surfactants are introduced in reverse order, the surface tension exhibits an overshoot or oscillation over time, depending on the relative concentrations of C8E4 and OM. This pattern mirrors those previously observed in C8E4 - dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide (DTAB) and tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide (TTAB) - DTAB systems. The surface tension overshoot and oscillation phenomena are explained by the differences in the critical micelle concentrations (i.e., surface activity) of the surfactants. We also analyzed the observed surface tension behaviors using the theory developed for the adsorption kinetics of higher alcohols on lipid-insoluble monolayers. Comparing our findings with those in lipid-insoluble monolayers, it was suggested that the elasticity of the initially formed adsorbed film is another crucial factor in determining whether surface tension oscillation or overshoot occurs.

To investigate glycerol effect on the microstructure and rheology of lyotropic liquid crystals formed in sucrose laurate/glycerol/water systems, a series of pseudo-ternary surfactant system are prepared and investigated. SWAXS data confirms the presence of hexagonal liquid crystal phase (H phase) as the predominant phase in sucrose laurate/water systems with a medium-to-high surfactant concentration. These changes in SAXS pattern demonstrate that glycerol incorporation into aqueous phase in sucrose laurate/water system would reduce the long-range positional ordering of cylindrical micelles in H phase, even results in a transformation of H phase to other disordered phases. Moreover, the effect gradually diminishes with growing surfactant content but still remains in these systems. However, The WAXS profiles indicate that the short-range order of hexagonal liquid crystals is also affected by the glycerol addition. These conclusions are corroborated by polarized light microscope observations and subsequent rheological tests. Variable-temperature SWAXS experiments show that glycerol incorporation significantly reduces the critical temperature where a drastic decrease in the long-range positional ordering of the H phase occurs. Steady shear rheology confirms that glycerol incorporation leads to a decrease in the structural ordering of H phase. Dynamic frequency sweep experiments indicate the strength or stiffness of the liquid crystals decrease with the addition of glycerol. However, these effects become less pronounced with the increase of surfactant content.

The incorporation of molecular assemblies into hydrogels for transdermal delivery applications may affect their morphology and the dynamics of their constituent molecules; however, such effects have not been thoroughly investigated. In this study, we used bicellar mixtures composed of DPPC and DHPC as a model system to evaluate structural changes and reversibility within agarose hydrogels using depolarized dynamic light scattering (DDLS), a non-destructive method capable of analyzing morphologies of samples dispersed in an aqueous solution. To verify the performance of the DLS apparatus, standard particles and synthetic mica were measured, confirming that sufficient scattering intensity could be obtained even at an agarose concentration of 0.5 mass%. We investigated DPPC vesicles and DPPC/DHPC bicellar mixtures in aqueous solution and agarose gel, analyzing their translational and rotational diffusion coefficients. By applying a morphology-sensitive correction factor α, the aspect ratio (AR) of the bicellar assemblies was estimated to be approximately 2.0. The major and minor axes of the DPPC/DHPC bicelle mixtures were 40.0 nm and 20.0 nm in aqueous solution, and 32.7 nm and 15.0 nm in agarose gel, respectively. These differences may indicate stacking of multiple bicellar mixtures, which is consistent with the TEM image observations. In addition, although the structural transformation of bicellar mixtures in agarose gels occurred more slowly than in aqueous solution, changes induced by external stimuli (e.g., heating and stirring) and their partial reversibility were observed. These findings demonstrate that DDLS is a useful technique for evaluating the structural stability and responsiveness of molecular assemblies within agarose hydrogels, providing valuable insights for the future design of gel-embedded drug delivery systems.

We studied the adsorption and lubrication of cationic surfactants on silica in the presence of 1-hexadecanol (C16OH). The surfactants employed in this study were quaternary ammonium salts with different alkyl chain lengths (alkyltrimethylammonium chloride, CnTAC, where n is the alkyl chain length of 14, 16, and 18). The mixing of CnTAC, C16OH, and water generally yields the structure of "α-form hydrated crystals" or the structural unit of "lamellar gel networks" at appropriate compositions. In these structures, the alkyl chains of CnTAC and C16OH are packed in the hexagonal arrangement within lamellar bilayers. Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring technique suggested that the adsorbed vesicular aggregates of CnTAC and C16OH flattened on the silica surface. The larger vesicular aggregates formed a viscosity-dominant thicker adsorption film in the initial stage, and then experienced the flattening more significantly to yield an elasticity-dominant thin film. At a given size of the vesicular aggregates, the alkyl chain length of CnTAC did not make large impact on the adsorption in their steady state. The adsorption film achieved excellent lubricity, being irrespective on the size of the vesicular aggregates and the alkyl chain length of CnTAC. We anticipate that these findings will be useful in formulating "α-gels" in various personal care applications.

Magnolia officinalis Flos (Houpohua), a valued traditional Chinese medicine, suffers from inconsistent quality due to vague pharmacopeial harvesting criteria. To resolve this, we integrated multi-scale analytical approaches-including microscopic histochemistry, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and chemometrics (n=120 samples)-yielding three critical discoveries: (1) A newly established 4-stage developmental classification (S1-S4) pinpointed S1 (bud length: 4.1-6.0 cm) as the biosynthetic optimum, exhibiting peak essential oil content (0.27% w/w) and maximal oil cell density (236.35 ± 7.09 cells/mm); (2) Spatial mapping revealed a 40.03-foldoil cell gradient between basal (115.29 ± 3.45 cells/mm) and apical tepal regions, indicating tissue-specific accumulation patterns; (3) Multivariate analysis uncovered a developmental metabolic shift dominated by caryophyllene-to-caryophyllene oxide conversion (explaining 94.06% of PC1 variance), synchronized with oil cell maturation. Mechanistically, post-S1 yield reduction stems from cell dilution (tepal expansion) and oxidative transformation. This work not only establishes evidence-based harvesting standards but also proposes a novel quality assessment paradigm integrating structural and metabolic markers for medicinal plants.