Tick-borne zoonotic diseases continue to emerge in North America and Europe. Of particular concern are pathogens transmitted by ticks, such as spp., the causal agents of Lyme disease (Lyme borreliosis). Because ticks are adapted to forested habitats with high humidity and depend on wildlife for feeding and movement, research has focused on natural or rural landscapes. Demographic and land-use transitions, however, have created novel ecosystems in urban and periurban areas with high potential for human exposure. We describe post-World War II land processes giving rise to these ecosystems and explore resource-based habitat concepts and top-down community ecology perspectives aimed at predicting tick-borne disease (TBD) risk. We review studies in Europe and North America that demonstrate TBD risk in urban areas and potential drivers for TBD emergence. We identify missed opportunities for data measurements and reporting and propose metrics to quantify landscape connectivity to facilitate future syntheses or meta-analyses.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCP) are omnipresent in our daily lives, and these emerging contaminants require increasing attention. PPCP and their metabolites are found in treated wastewater and in biosolids resulting from wastewater treatment, thus providing routes for dissemination to soils, freshwater, and groundwater, with subsequent consequences for insects. This review explores the effects of PPCP on the molecular, physiological, and biological (including behavior) responses of insects and consequences for their microbiota. As several PPCP can bioaccumulate in insects, in particular in aquatic ones, their roles in the transfer of the drugs to riparian and terrestrial food web are discussed, as well as community-level consequences. We propose future research directions to better appreciate the side effects and unintended effects of medication on insects. Attention should be given to the effects of PPCP on insects in environmentally realistic scenarios with relevant concentrations, in combination with other environmental pollutants, and with durations of exposure.

Aphelinids are minute parasitoids belonging to the wasp superfamily Chalcidoidea. Typical hosts of Aphelinidae include soft-bodied Hemiptera, such as aphids, scale insects, and whiteflies, but some species are oophagous or hyperparasitic on other parasitoids. The family currently contains 37 genera and approximately 1,500 species, although the latter is a gross underrepresentation of their true diversity. The bionomics of Aphelinidae was last reviewed 40 years ago. Since then, phylogenomic analyses and high-quality taxonomic works have clarified relationships between and within different lineages of Aphelinidae, and knowledge of their interactions with their environment and hosts has increased considerably. In this review, we summarize this research, with an emphasis on the recognition, morphology, systematics, biology, genomics, and economic importance of aphelinids as biological control agents. Finally, we present future issues regarding this important family of parasitoids.

Mosquito-borne infectious diseases, such as malaria, respond to environmental change in a complex way because the transmission of depends on a set of context-specific ecological and social factors that influence mosquito vectors and humans differently. Malaria continues to be a serious public health problem for populations living in and near the tropical humid forest of the Amazon region, where evidence suggests that deforestation of the Amazon forest has been the main environmental driver of persistent epidemics. In this review, we focus on the impact of increasing forest degradation on the ecology of anopheline vectors and how aspects of mosquito population dynamics, such as abundance and the rate of human-vector contact, may mediate the relationship between environmental transformation and malaria risk. We also discuss the increasingly important role of regional zoonotic malaria. The sustainability of the malaria elimination strategy in the Americas will require a better understanding of the adaptation of mosquitoes to increasing anthropogenic pressures on the Amazon rainforest.

Recent studies using metatranscriptome sequencing have revealed a diversity of viruses associated with insects. Researchers have used various approaches to establish patterns of transmission of insect-specific viruses and have shown that insects often harbor viruses that are inherited from parents to offspring. It remains unclear, however, whether heritable viral symbioses can be understood in the same ecological and evolutionary framework that has been established for bacterial symbiosis. We review studies showing beneficial and pathogenic effects of heritable viruses on their hosts, and we discuss additional ways that heritable viruses shape insect evolution. We also compare bacterial and viral symbiosis and review ways that this emerging field can be used for biocontrol of pests and insect-borne pathogens. Heritable viruses are a key part of the ecology and evolution of insects. A framework for studying symbiosis between insects and these microbes is important for a comprehensive understanding of insect biology.

The insect cuticle is a complex extracellular matrix that provides physical support and protection against infection, dehydration, mechanical injury, and stress. Chitin with different degrees of deacetylation, and various kinds of cuticle proteins, lipids, and other organic molecules, are crucial structural components of the insect cuticle. To meet the demands of development, insects periodically molt to shed their old cuticles and form new ones. Increasing research attention has been focused on the molecular mechanism of cuticle biosynthesis and the intracellular transport and assembly of the structural components. Although the whole picture of how insect cuticle is precisely formed remains elusive, breakthroughs in the last decade have revealed a number of enzymes and protein factors that are involved in the cuticle formation. This review summarizes recent advances in molecular aspects of insect cuticles, with particular emphasis on the roles of proteins, which are also promising targets for pest control and management.

An estimated 20% of about 400,000 species of beetles (Coleoptera) are flower visitors. Despite this huge taxonomic and natural history diversity, beetle-flower interactions have historically been overlooked and summarized as inefficient mess-and-soil pollinators associated with an easily recognizable flower syndrome. Here, we combine classical and artificial intelligence-supported review methods to discuss the reasons for this neglect, which include biased documentation and pervasive views that reflect only a subset of beetle-flower interactions. We review general trends in extant and fossil flower beetle morphology, behavior, and diversity, as well as the diversity of the flowers they visit. We discuss how the fossil record and molecular phylogenetics show both ancient associations preceding angiosperm dominance and numerous cases of derived associations leading to more recent diversification. The context dependency of beetle-flower interaction outcomes and their pervasiveness could be leveraged to improve our understanding of insect diversification processes and the costs and benefits of different pollination systems.

Ants and termites play important roles in tropical ecosystems, leading to an evolutionary arms race in which diverse foraging, predation, and counterpredation strategies developed. These strategies resulted in the emergence of specialized predators of termites, such as the African termite-raiding ant, , which organizes coordinated raids on termites of agricultural importance belonging to the subfamily Macrotermitinae. Decades of field and laboratory studies have examined the natural history of , describing its distribution, raiding behavior, chemical ecology, task allocation, rescue and other helping behaviors, and nursing of wounds. However, the potential of for the management of termites is yet to be explored. This review synthesizes the literature on , outlines recent progress in understanding its ecology, identifies knowledge gaps, and proposes directions for future research and possible applications of the knowledge to different fields.

Several phytohormones have been detected in whole-body analyses of insects and in their salivary glands, saliva, and frass. More comprehensive surveys are needed to develop a clear picture of their distribution and abundance in insects, but cytokinins, auxin (indole-3-acetic acid), and abscisic acid appear to be widespread in insects. Other phytohormones, such as salicylic acid, jasmonates, gibberellins, and brassinosteroids, have also been reported, but a full assessment of their distribution and abundance in insects requires further study. Exogenous phytohormones provided by herbivorous insects likely alter source-sink nutrient dynamics in their host plants, modulate host-plant defenses, lead to the induction of plant galls and the vascularization of galls connecting them to the host plant, lead to the development of green islands, and can alter anthocyanin biosynthesis, which in the sun may make galls red.

Herbivorous insects can shape the epidemiology of disease in plants by vectoring numerous phytopathogens. While the consequences of infection are often well-characterized in the host plant, the extent to which phytopathogens alter the physiology and development of their insect vectors remains poorly understood. In this review, we highlight how insect-borne phytopathogens can promote vector fitness, consistent with theoretical predictions that selection should favor a mutualistic or commensal phenotype. In doing so, we define the metabolic features predisposing plant pathogens to engage in beneficial partnerships with herbivorous insects and how these mutualisms promote the microbe's propagation to uninfected plants. For the vector, the benefits of co-opting microbial pathways and metabolites can be immense: from balancing a nutritionally deficient diet and unlocking a novel ecological niche to upgrading its defensive biochemistry against natural enemies. Given the independent origins of these tripartite interactions and a number of convergent features, we also discuss the evolutionary and genomic signatures underlying microbial adaptation to its dual lifestyle as both a plant pathogen and an insect mutualist. Finally, as host association can constrain the metabolic potential of microbes over evolutionary time, we outline the stability of these interactions and how they impact the virulence and transmission of plant pathogens.

Historically, contact insecticides have played a major role in managing pests in postharvest stored commodities. Despite the availability of significant literature published over the past three decades, the current status and potential future use of contact insecticides are not known. In this review we synthesize the literature to identify reasons for the ongoing decline in the use of contact insecticides in postharvest commodity protection, and outline the challenges and opportunities for their future use by the grain industry. Development of resistance in major stored-product insect pests to conventional pesticides and the stricter regulatory requirements driven by consumer sensitivity to pesticide residues on food are discussed in detail to explain the limitations to their current use. We also highlight the strategic integration of currently available contact insecticides into a fumigation-dominated pest management program. We conclude by proposing several research aspects that may prompt their continued use by the grain industry in the near future.

Many insects' gut microbiota derive partly or wholly from environmental sources. These microbes may be transient, passing through in a matter of hours, days, a developmental stage, or a host generation. There is increasing recognition of the presence of transient microbes in the insect gut, but it is often assumed that these microbes are commensal and serve no function for their hosts. Here, we explore different definitions of microbial transience and review results from diverse insect systems showing that transience does not always preclude, and in some cases enables, important contributions of environmentally acquired microbes to host fitness. Moving past the assumption that microbes must always be tightly associated with a host to serve beneficial functions will help us develop a more accurate and nuanced understanding of the functions of the gut microbiota in insects and other animals.

Bees are generally agreed to be the most important pollinators. Their pollination functions and services not only closely link to crop production and food security, but also underlie ecosystem health and stability. Unfortunately, bees face a combination of stressors such as land-use intensification and pesticide overuse, leading to declines and potential risks to human welfare. These facts underscore the urgent need for global research and action to protect bees and their pollination services. In this review, we examine the current understanding of pollinator bee diversity, function, and conservation in China. We discuss existing knowledge gaps, summarize the stressors affecting bees in China, and highlight their uniqueness when compared to advances in better-studied regions. We also provide insights into promising areas for future research, while advocating for more investments in the conservation of bees and their pollination services in China and Asia more broadly.

Fabre's nineteenth-century observation that smell is central to insect communication spurred entomologists and, later, chemical ecologists, neurobiologists, geneticists, structural biologists, and evolutionary biologists to investigate how insects detect survival-related compounds. Structural biologists resolved the three-dimensional structures of pheromone-binding proteins and odorant receptors (ORs), revealing features that enable specific interactions with semiochemicals. Researchers proposed that ORs evolved from gustatory receptors as insects adapted to terrestrial life and then specialized to detect species-specific sex pheromones. Most insects use both broadly and finely tuned receptors, but migratory locusts rely mainly on finely tuned ones. To test hypotheses, genes were silenced, expressed in empty neurons, or resurrected, leading to receptor de-orphanization and discovery of new semiochemicals through reverse chemical ecology. These receptors and coreceptors are expressed in olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) within sensilla of the antennae and maxillary palps. Recent evidence suggests ORNs may express multiple receptor types, including odorant, ionotropic, and gustatory receptors.

The genus Mik (Diptera: Agromyzidae) comprises a diverse group of leaf-mining flies that feed internally on plant tissues, with species ranging from host plant specialists to highly polyphagous pests. In this genus, , , and have emerged as the dominant invasive species in China over the past three decades, causing extensive damage and complicating pest management efforts Owing to having overlapping host ranges, these species frequently co-occur, resulting in intense interspecific competition and, in many cases, competitive displacement. This review synthesizes recent advances in understanding the invasion dynamics, species displacement processes, and ecological interactions of these three species. We highlight how interspecific competition, driven by variation in host preference, insecticide resistance, and climatic adaptability, has shaped species distributions and displacement outcomes. We also examine cryptic diversity within species, the importance of accurate diagnostics, and the limitations of current quarantine and management strategies. Finally, we discuss promising directions for integrated pest management, including the development of host plant resistance, the deployment of novel insecticides, and the application of molecular tools. By positioning as a model system, this review contributes to a broader understanding of invasive species ecology and offers guidance for the sustainable management of leafminers and other invasive agricultural pests.

Leaf-cutting ants, which comprise more than 50 species distributed from Patagonia to North America, build the largest nests among ants. Workers forage plant fragments to cultivate a symbiotic fungus inside underground chambers, which serves as the primary food source for the colony. While digging the nest, workers respond to local cues such as soil temperature, moisture, and CO levels, resulting in the emergence of a nest architecture that provides a proper environment for fungus growth. Leaf-cutting ants have species-specific nest architectures, which evolved from a basal design consisting of a vertical tunnel and a few interconnected chambers. Some species developed, in addition, architectural innovations aimed at the control of both hygiene and nest climate, including waste chambers, ventilatory turrets, and a nest thatch. A fine-tuned climate control is achieved by the relocation of fungus gardens within the nest following the workers' environmental preferences and by nesting plasticity.

Many types of viruses have been identified in parasitoid wasps and other Hymenoptera. Parasitoid wasps also transmit several viruses to hosts through the piercing ovipositors that females use to lay eggs. Most viruses that are known to be transmitted by parasitoids have large double-stranded DNA genomes. We summarize the range of interactions that have evolved between parasitoid wasps and the viruses they transmit. Some viruses are mechanically transmitted to hosts, which can reduce the fitness of wasp offspring. Others have evolved into beneficial symbionts or reproductive parasites that replicate in wasps and hosts. Some large dsDNA viruses have also been co-opted into domesticated endogenized viruses that are vertically transmitted to offspring but still produce virions or virus-like particles that wasps use to parasitize hosts. We conclude by discussing future directions and why parasitoid wasps likely transmit many more viruses than are currently known.

Millennia after the advent of pesticides and nearly eight decades into the widespread use of synthetic compounds, the role of such chemicals in modern society remains pivotal, despite persistent concerns over human and environmental safety. Rather than declining, pesticide use continues to expand, with shifting priorities regarding compound selection and application strategies. The growing prominence of biopesticides broadens pest management options but complicates the evaluation of their side effects. Additionally, evolving pesticide use patterns-including the increasing reliance on mixtures-introduce further complexities, as compound interactions and their effects on exposed organisms require closer scrutiny. Although pesticide risk assessment is a relatively young and evolving field, its progress remains hindered by misconceptions, biases, and oversimplifications. This review integrates ecotoxicology and stress biology into a conceptual framework to address these challenges, advocating for more precise and dynamic approaches to pesticide risk assessment.

The superfamily Elateroidea (click beetles, fireflies, soldier beetles, net-winged beetles, and relatives) constitute a morphologically diverse group of polyphagan beetles with an ancient evolutionary history and worldwide distribution. Elateroids include numerous lineages that are paedomorphic, bioluminescent, or both. More than 31,500 extant and extinct described species belonging to almost 1,700 genera are currently classified in 18 families. Significant progress in our understanding of Elateroidea phylogeny, evolution, and systematics has been accelerated by advances in phylogenetics, phylogenomics, and imaging technologies for visualization and reconstruction of insect structures, including those of fossils. Additionally, several new families, both extant and extinct, have been discovered and described. Consequently, the classification of elateroid beetles and our views on the evolution of paedomorphosis and bioluminescence underwent dramatic changes over the last two decades. This review summarizes changes, major discoveries, and improvements in our knowledge of the Elateroidea.Updated on October 3, 2025.

Climate adaptation in insects can proceed via responses in life-history traits and their thermal plasticity and through phenological shifts mediated by responses to photoperiodic cues (photoperiodism). While experimental studies demonstrate evolutionary potential for both modes of adaptation, it remains unclear how evolution will unfold in natural populations, limiting our ability to predict how insects will respond to climate change. Here, we review the literature and analyze published studies revealing that photoperiodism for diapause induction evolves predictably along latitude, with high-latitude populations entering diapause earlier. In contrast, although a few species showed clinal variation in life history and thermal plasticity, the direction of these clines was not consistent across taxa. These findings suggest that while insect life history and physiological adaptation to temperature can evolve, phenological shifts via evolution of photoperiodism are likely to be more common and predictable responses to future climate change.

Bumble bees () are prominent keystone pollinators globally and thus serve as model taxa for numerous facets of biology from social evolution to foraging economics. Many of the ∼265 species are in decline, motivating research that aims to better understand which traits make them susceptible. Despite a long history of taxonomic and natural history research, much of their biology is understood from just a few commercially available species. This review compiles the breadth of biotic trait diversity of bumble bees to provide a comparative perspective on their biology, evolution, and conservation. It features ecological traits most pertinent to their conservation, as well as traits of these primitively eusocial bees that inform our understanding of their social evolution. Many of these traits are interdependent, making a broadly comparative analysis valuable for interpreting evolution and declines. These data are organized in a phylogenetic context to show patterns of trait correlation and knowledge gaps, highlighting the depauperate natural history data in Asian and South American species. Limitations in comparative interpretation due to data standardization are emphasized.