Many modern classrooms impose constraints on student movement, both physical (e.g. stable, upright chairs) and psychological (e.g. norms that "being still" signals paying attention).. We conducted two separate studies on 32 6 grade (11-12 year old) and 43 7 grade (12-13 year old) students, respectively. Study 1 was a within-subject design and compared students' creative ideation on the Alternate Uses Test and a verbal memory task through two conditions: Sit Still (on a regular chair with instructions to not move) or Freedom to Move (on a wiggle stool with ability to move as they wanted). There was a significant effect of condition on novel ideas, as well as number of novel ideas / total ideation (creativity ratio). There was no significant difference by condition on the verbal memory task. Study 2 was a within-subject design (due to the COVID-19 pandemic, each student completed 2 of 3 conditions): Sit Still, Freedom to Move, and Sit as Usual (on a regular chair with instructions to sit as if they were paying attention in class) and compared students' creative ideation and a focused attention task instead of Study 1's memory task. There was a significant effect of condition on novel ideas and creativity ratio, but pairwise comparisons were not statistically significant. There was no condition effect on focused attention. The Freedom to Move effects appear selective only for creative ideation. Implications for future research and small classroom changes to support natural movement are discussed.

The "truth sandwich" correction format, in which false information is bookended by factual information, has frequently been presented as an optimal method for correcting misinformation. Despite recurring recommendations, there is little empirical evidence for enhanced benefits. In two pre-registered experiments (total = 1046), we evaluated the effectiveness of the truth sandwich correction format against a "bottom-loaded" refutation format, in which the misinformation is first presented prior to factual statements. In Experiment 1, participants first rated belief in cancer misinformation. The misinformation was then corrected using the truth sandwich, corrected using a bottom-loaded refutation, or left uncorrected (control). Participants subsequently rerated their belief in the claims. Experiment 2 replicated and extended Experiment 1 by including a two-week test delay. We found that both correction formats were highly effective. However, there was no evidence that the truth sandwich format enhanced the effectiveness of corrections either immediately after reading or after a two-week delay period, with Bayesian analyses providing consistent evidence for a null effect of correction format. We repeated our analyses isolated to participants who endorsed complementary and alternative medicines, given this subgroup is particularly likely to believe cancer misinformation. We again found no evidence for any superiority of the truth sandwich correction format. These findings suggest that clear and detailed corrections can be powerfully effective against misinformation regardless of format, and advocacy for the truth sandwich correction above other simpler formats are unwarranted.

Indigenous/Native Americans remain highly underrepresented in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields. Their underrepresentation may be due, in part, to the incongruity between personally valued goals (e.g., the of "giving back" to one's community and/or the of "independence") and opportunities to satisfy those goals in STEM careers (i.e., affordances). Goal congruity theory posits that individuals' attitudes towards a social role (e.g., being a scientist) are influenced by the communal/agentic goal affordances associated with that role and the congruity between those affordances and personally valued goals. This longitudinal research study followed a large sample of Indigenous people pursuing STEM degrees/careers to investigate the direct and indirect effects of perceived communal/agentic goal affordances in STEM careers and incongruity (Time-2) on intentions to persist and life satisfaction (Time-3) through a sense of belonging in their STEM field (Time-2), controlling for baseline (Time-1). Both communal and agentic goal affordances positively influenced persistence intentions through belonging. By contrast, agentic goal incongruity negatively influenced persistence intentions through belonging, but communal goal incongruity did not. We found no significant results for global life satisfaction. Our findings underscore the significance of supporting roles and environments that facilitate the fulfillment of communal and agentic goals and point to the complexity of the goal-pursuit process among Indigenous populations.

The current qualitative investigation explored Latinx youths' and parents' reimagined ideal school realities in the context of cultural stressors. Forty-five youth (50% female; 0% non-binary; = 15.26 years, = .79; range = 14 - 17) and 28 parents (75% female; 0% non-binary; = 42.36, = 8.51; range = 31 - 71) participated in six separate youth and parent focus groups. Guided by reflexive thematic analysis, we constructed two themes: 1) inclusive, welcoming, and safe schools and 2) schools without cultural stressors and filled with supportive allies; each with three accompanying subthemes. Youths' and parents' reimagined ideal realities revealed needed changes in people and infrastructure within the school context. Youths' and parents' descriptions also revealed how the school context might be changed to remove the burden of dealing with cultural stressors from youth and parents by changing the school context to promote student/parent engagement, foster student well-being and academic thriving, and protect students and parents from cultural stressor experiences.

What can educators do to trigger and maintain their students' interest during a class or lecture, and how can they help students develop interest that persists when instruction ends? In the present research, we conducted a series of seven laboratory experiments (total = 2,019), in which undergraduate students learned about statistics. In these studies, we tested two manipulations, each theorized to promote a different phase of interest development: (i) we provided students with meaningful choices as they learned, hypothesized to trigger and maintain situational interest, and (ii) we presented students with information about the utility value (i.e., usefulness) of the topic for commonly valued goals, an instructional practice theorized to promote the development of longer-term interest. An internal meta-analysis of these experiments showed that both manipulations independently promoted situational interest in the topic, but only the choice manipulation was effective at promoting self-reported attention and engagement during the session. In contrast, only the utility value manipulation led students to request resources about statistics (e.g., a list of statistics courses at the university, information about a data-science major), a behavioral indicator of interest in the topic that extended beyond the session. This evidence suggests that beliefs about the usefulness of academic content for personal goals can play an important and unique role in the development of enduring interest, and it points to the promise of multifaceted instructional approaches that can catch and hold students' interest via multiple, distinct mechanisms.

A growing body of research has found that perceptions of social-emotional support from school personnel and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) in-school resources (e.g., gender and sexuality alliances, inclusive curricula, inclusive sexual education, presence of affirming adults) contribute to sexual and gender diverse youth's (SGDY) positive development. However, no research has investigated how support from school personnel and LGBTQ in-school resources might jointly modify the associations between SGDY's experiences with sexual orientation and gender identity (identity)-based harassment and mental health outcomes. Thus, the current study examined how school personnel support and LGBTQ in-school resources, together, moderated the association between identity-based harassment, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms among a national sample of SGDY ( = 13,500, = 15.50, = 1.34). Multigroup path analysis revealed that for SGDY in middle school (i.e., 6-8) and high school grade levels (i.e., 9-12), school personnel support and LGBTQ in-school resources jointly moderated the association between identity-based harassment and depressive symptoms. Among SGDY who reported high levels of harassment, support from school personnel buffered the association between identity-based harassment and depressive symptoms. However, at low levels of harassment, it was a combination of high support from school personnel and LGBTQ in-school resources that was linked to the lowest levels of depressive symptoms. SGDY reported more depressive symptoms when they perceived low levels of support from school personnel, regardless of the concentration of LGBTQ in-school resources.

We examined the relation between text reading fluency and reading comprehension, and moderators of the relation, including grade level, orthographic depth, and assessment task type (for text reading: text reading efficiency, accuracy, rate, sentence verification, maze; for reading comprehension: e.g., multiple-choice, oral retell, cloze), using a meta-analysis. Results from 401 studies (1,253 effect sizes; 266,880 participants) showed that across different types of text reading and reading comprehension tasks, text reading was strongly related with reading comprehension ( = .61, or .70 when correcting for measurement error) while text reading efficiency had a stronger relation (.65) than text reading accuracy (.59) or text reading rate (.54). Furthermore, the correlation differed by grade level and orthographic depth: .73 in primary grades, .69 in upper elementary grades, .59 in middle school, .54 in high school, and .44 for adults in deep orthographies, compared to .69 in primary grades, .52 in upper elementary grades, .42 in middle school, and .29 in high school in shallow orthographies. The maze and sentence verification tasks were more strongly related to measures of text reading than to reading comprehension measures. The magnitude of relation differed by measurement approaches: text reading measured by text reading efficiency and maze tasks had the strongest relation with reading comprehension; text reading had stronger relations with reading comprehension measured by the multiple-choice, the cloze task, and oral open-ended tasks than the written open-ended and retell tasks. The patterns of relations were the same when correcting for measurement error, although magnitudes were generally stronger.

Persistent inequities in the educational success of Black adolescents are a critical social justice concern. Though psychological distress has been associated with worse educational outcomes, less is known about the mechanisms that may influence this association. This study used nationally representative cross-sectional data from the National Survey of American Life-Adolescent (NSAL-A; 2001-2004) to explore how developmental assets (i.e., self-esteem, mastery, school bonding, educational aspirations, educational expectations) mediate associations between psychological distress (i.e., perceived stress, depressive symptoms) and educational outcomes (i.e., grades, grade repetition, suspensions, expulsions) among 1,170 Black adolescents ages 13-17 (52% female; mean age 15). The study found that educational expectations was a statistically significant mediator; lower psychological distress was associated with greater expectations which, in turn, was linked to better grades, lower grade repetition, and fewer expulsions. Additionally, school bonding was a statistically significant mediator such that lower perceived stress and depressive symptoms were associated with better school bonding. In turn, school bonding was associated with higher grades and fewer school expulsions. Self-esteem also significantly mediated the association between psychological distress and grade repetition. Study findings can contribute to precision in identifying culturally relevant targets of interventions among Black adolescents and help to address racial disparities in adolescent educational outcomes.

Reading comprehension (RC) and word-problem solving (WPS) both involve text processing. Yet, despite evidence that RC text-structure intervention improves RC, transfer to WPS has not been investigated. Similarly, despite evidence that WPS text-structure intervention improves WPS, transfer to RC has not been examined. The purpose of this randomized controlled trial was to assess effects of single-domain text-structure intervention (RC WPS intervention) for simultaneously improving RC WPS. Second-grade children with comorbid learning difficulty across RC and WPS were randomly assigned to 3 conditions: RC text-structure intervention (RC.INT), WPS text-structure intervention (WP.INT), or the standard school program (the control group). Inferential tests for acquisition effects in multilevel models were significant. RC.INT's effect sizes (vs. control) on RC were = 1.16 and 0.83; WP.INT's ESs (vs. control) on WPS were = 1.36 and 1.05. Inferential tests for cross-domain transfer effects in multilevel models were also significant. RC.INT's ESs (vs. control) on WPS were = 0.41 and 0.68; WP.INT's ES (vs. control) on RC were = 0.91 and 0.54. Children's text-structure knowledge in passages and word problems mediated acquisition and cross-domain transfer effects in multilevel models. Findings suggest that text-structure intervention may help address the complex needs of children with comorbid RC and WPS difficulty.

Theoretical models hold that written products (e.g., writing quality) are the outcome of the writing process (e.g., translation, transcription, revision), and skills and knowledge on which the writing process draws (e.g., language, transcription, cognitive skills). In the present study, we examined the relations among writing quality; the writing production process measured by writing fluency; and language, cognitive, and transcription skills, using longitudinal data from English-speaking beginning writers who were followed from kindergarten to Grade 2 ( = 261). Children's working memory, attentional control, spelling, handwriting fluency, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, and writing quality were measured in kindergarten, Grade 1, and Grade 2. Writing fluency was measured in Grade 2 in two ways, using a process-based measure, writing burst length (chunks of text produced between pauses during writing), and a product-based measure, the number of words produced per total writing time. Results from structural equation modeling showed that Grade 2 writing fluency was moderately related to Grade 2 writing quality (.40) and completely mediated the relations of Grade 1 spelling and handwriting fluency skills to Grade 2 writing quality. In contrast, Grade 1 vocabulary was directly related to Grade 2 writing quality over and above Grade 2 writing fluency. Kindergarten working memory was indirectly related to Grade 2 writing fluency via Grade 1 spelling skill. These findings indicate that the writing production process measured by writing fluency mediates the relations of transcription skills to writing quality, and executive function is indirectly related to writing fluency via transcription skills for beginning writers.

The program code developed by others is appropriately cited in the text and listed in the references section. The raw and processed data on which study conclusions are based are not available. The statistical syntax needed to reproduce analyses in the article is available upon request. The methods section provides references for the materials described therein. We report how we determined our sample size, all data exclusions, all manipulations, and all measures in the study, and we follow APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards. This study's design, hypotheses, and data analytic plan were not pre-registered. Prior research supports the need for elementary-aged students with reading difficulties (RD) to receive explicit systematic small group evidence-based reading instruction. Yet for many students, simply receiving an evidence-based reading instruction in a small group setting is insufficient to reach the progress milestones needed to meet grade level reading standards. The current study examined whether: (1) elementary school students with RD constitute a homogeneous or heterogeneous groups when considering their basic language and cognitive skills (using a latent profile analysis), and (2) if latent profiles are predictive of response to reading comprehension instruction (using a mixed modeling approach). The sample consisted of 335 students, including students with RD and typical students ( = 57). The results revealed heterogeneity within students with RD - there were two distinct profiles, with one having higher basic language (reading fluency and decoding) and cognitive (verbal domain productivity, cognitive flexibility, working memory) skills and lower attention skills, and the other having stronger attention skills and lower basic language and cognitive skills. The findings also suggested that latent profiles were predictive of response to reading comprehension instruction. Our results provide a convincing argument for leading the field in the direction of developing customized interventions. It is conceivable, but remains to be further examined, that researchers and educators could potentially improve reading outcomes through providing a customized reading intervention to a student based on their cognitive-language profile.

More and more, people are abandoning the active pursuit of news, assuming instead that important information will be pushed to them via their social media networks. This approach to news makes people susceptible to the vast amounts of misinformation online, yet research on the effects of this kind of engagement is mixed. More research is needed on technology incidental learning effects, defined as changes in knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors as a result of being exposed to information while pursuing goals other than learning (e.g., entertainment). In this study, we examined how 51 college students responded to incidental exposure to accurate and inaccurate COVID-19 information delivered via a simulated social media environment. Participants' verbalizations during think-aloud protocols indicated numerous mental processes including cognition, metacognition, epistemic cognition, motivation, and emotions. Positively valenced mental processing was more often expressed with accurate COVID-19 information and negatively valenced mental processing was more often verbalized with misinformation. Negatively valenced evaluations of knowledge claims and sources predicted less engagement with COVID-19 misinformation posts. However, in many cases the relations among verbalized mental processing and behavioral responses were complex or non-obvious. For example, participants' positive metacognition and epistemic cognition verbalizations decreased their likelihood of engaging with accurate COVID-19 information, whereas positive interest was associated with an increased likelihood of engaging with misinformation. Our findings have implications for how to accurately infer people's beliefs and intentions from their social media behaviors and how to design interventions to help people be more active and thoughtful consumers of online information.

The 'simple view of reading' is an influential model of reading comprehension which asserts that children's reading comprehension performance can be explained entirely by their decoding and language comprehension skills. Children with ADHD often exhibit difficulty across all three of these reading domains on standardized achievement tests, yet it is unclear whether the simple view of reading is sufficient to explain reading comprehension performance for these children. The current study was the first to use multiple indicators and latent estimates to examine the veracity of key predictions from the simple view of reading in a clinically-evaluated sample of 250 children with and without ADHD (ages 8-13, M=10.29, SD=1.47; 93 girls; 70% White/Non-Hispanic). Results of the full-sample structural equation model revealed that decoding and language comprehension explained all (R=.99) of the variance in reading comprehension for children with and without ADHD. Further, multigroup modeling (ADHD, Non-ADHD) indicated that there was no difference in the quantity of variance explained for children with ADHD versus clinically-evaluated children without ADHD, and that the quantity of explained variance did not differ from 100% for either group. Sensitivity analyses indicated that these effects were generally robust to control for monomethod bias, time sampling error, and IQ. These findings are consistent with 'simple view' predictions that decoding and language comprehension are both and together for explaining children's reading comprehension skills. The findings extend prior work by indicating that the 'simple view' holds for both children with ADHD and clinically-evaluated children without ADHD.

There are consistent correlations between mathematics achievement, attitudes, and anxiety, but the longitudinal relations among these constructs are not well understood nor are sex differences in these relations. To address this gap, mathematics achievement, attitudes, and anxiety were longitudinally assessed for 342 (169 boys) adolescents from 7th to 9th grade, inclusive, and Latent Growth Curve Models were used to assess the relations among these traits and developmental change in them. Spatial abilities (7th, 8th grade) and trait anxiety (8th, 9th grade) were also assessed and used for control for sex differences in these traits. Overall, boys had stronger spatial abilities and more positive mathematics attitudes and were less anxious than girls, but there were no sex differences in mathematics achievement. Across grades, mathematics achievement improved, attitudes became less positive, and anxiety increased for both boys and girls. Higher than average cross-grade growth in mathematics achievement mitigated boys' developmental declines in mathematics attitudes and increases in anxiety. Girls with strong spatial abilities had lower mathematics anxiety, but girls overall maintained higher mathematics anxiety and less positive mathematics attitudes relative to boys, even when they showed strong cross-grade gains in mathematics achievement. The study demonstrated that longitudinal gains in mathematics are associated with cross-grade changes in attitudes and anxiety but with several different developmental patterns for boys and girls.

The study tested the hypothesis that there are sex differences in the pathways to mathematical development. Three hundred forty-two adolescents (169 boys) were assessed in various mathematics areas from arithmetic fluency to algebra across 6 to 9 grade, inclusive, and completed a battery of working memory, spatial, and intelligence measures in middle school. Their middle school and 9 grade teachers reported on their in-class attentive behavior. There were no sex differences in overall mathematics performance, but boys had advantages on all spatial measures (s = .29 to .58) and girls were more attentive in classroom settings (s = -.28 to -.37). A series of structural equation models indicated that 6- to 9-grade mathematical competence was influenced by a combination of general cognitive ability, spatial abilities, and in-class attention. General cognitive ability was important for both sexes but the spatial pathway to mathematical competence was relatively more important for boys and the in-class attention pathway for girls.

While the extraordinary pressures of the COVID-19 pandemic on student mental health have received considerable attention, less attention has been placed on educator well-being. School system employees play a vital role in society, and teacher levels of well-being are associated with the educational outcomes of young people. We extend extant research on the prevalence and correlates of educator distress during the pandemic by reporting on a pragmatic randomized wait-list controlled trial (=662; 64% teachers) of an innovative mental health promotion strategy implemented during the pandemic; a free four-week smartphone-based meditation app designed to train key constituents of well-being (Healthy Minds Program; HMP). Following our preregistered analysis plan and consistent with hypotheses, assignment to the HMP predicted significantly larger reductions in psychological distress, our primary outcome, at post-intervention (Cohen's =-0.52, 95% confidence interval [-0.68, -0.37], <.001) and at the three-month follow-up (=-0.33 [-0.48, -0.18], <.001). Also consistent with hypotheses, we observed similar indications of immediate and sustained benefit following the HMP on all six preregistered secondary outcomes selected to tap skills targeted in the app (e.g., perseverative thinking, social connection, well-being; absolute s=0.19-0.42, all s<.031 corrected except mindful action at follow-up). We found no evidence for elevated adverse events and the HMP was equally effective among participants with elevated baseline anxiety and depressive symptoms. These data suggest that the HMP may be an effective and scalable approach to supporting the mental health and well-being of teachers and other school system employees, with implications for employee retention and performance, and student outcomes.

Bringing effective, research-based literacy interventions into the classroom is challenging, especially given the cultural and linguistic diversity of today's classrooms. We examined the promise of Assessment-to-Instruction (A2i) technology redesigned to be used at scale to support teachers' implementation of the individualized student instruction (ISI) intervention from kindergarten through third grade. In seven randomized controlled trials, A2i and ISI have demonstrated efficacy. However, the research version of A2i was not scalable. In order to bring A2i to scale in schools serving linguistically diverse students, we carried out the current study across two phases. This study represents both an exploration of what it takes to bring an educational intervention to scale (Phase 1) and a quasi-experiment on the literacy outcomes of learners whose teachers used the technology (Phase 2). We integrated assessments of vocabulary, word decoding, and reading comprehension; revised the A2i algorithms to account for the constellation of skills English learners (ELs) bring to the classroom; updated the user interfaces and added new graphic features; and improved bandwidth and stability of the technology. Findings were mixed, including several non-significant results, a marginally significant intent-to-treat effect on word reading in kindergarten and first grade for English monolingual students and ELs, and one significant interaction effect, which suggested ELs and students with less developed reading skills in second and third grade benefitted most from the intervention. With some caution, we conclude that A2i demonstrates potential to be used at scale and promise of effectiveness for improving code-focused skills for diverse learners.

Metacognition is theorized to play a central role in children's mathematics learning. The primary goal of the current study was to provide experimental evidence in support of this role with elementary school students learning about mathematical equivalence. The final sample included 135 children (59 first-graders and 76 second-graders) who participated in the study across three sessions in their classrooms. They completed a pretest during session one, a lesson and posttest during session two, and a two-week delayed retention test during session three. For session two, children were randomly assigned to receive a lesson on mathematical equivalence with or without integrated metacognitive questions. Relative to the control lesson, children who received the metacognitive lesson demonstrated higher accuracy and higher metacognitive monitoring scores on the posttest and retention test. Further, these benefits sometimes extended to uninstructed items targeting arithmetic and place value. No condition effects were observed for children's metacognitive control skills within any of the topics. These findings suggest a brief metacognitive lesson can improve children's mathematics understanding.

Set for variability (SfV) is an oral language task which requires an individual to disambiguate the mismatch between the decoded form of an irregular word and its actual lexical pronunciation. For example, in the task, the word is pronounced to rhyme with (i.e., //) and the individual must recognize the actual pronunciation of the word to be //. SfV has been shown to be a significant predictor of both item-specific and general word reading variance above and beyond that associated with phonemic awareness skill, letter-sound knowledge, and vocabulary skill. However, very little is known about the child characteristics and word features that affect SfV item performance. In this study we explored whether word features and child characteristics that involve phonology only are adequate to explain item-level variance in SfV performance or whether including predictors that involve the connection between phonology and orthography explain additional variance. To accomplish this we administered the SfV task (=75 items) to a sample of grade 2-5 children (=489) along with a battery of reading, reading related, and language measures. Results suggest that variance in SfV performance is uniquely accounted for by measures tapping phonological skill along with those capturing knowledge of phonology to orthography associations, but more so in children with better decoding skill. Additionally, word reading skill was found to moderate the influence of other predictors suggesting that how the task is approached may be impacted by word reading and decoding ability.

Recent work has stressed the importance of considering child-level propensities and environmental opportunities when studying early math achievement; however, few studies investigate the interaction between these factors. This study examined whether children's inhibitory control moderates the association between parental math input and children's math performance. Parental math input via number talk and parent-reported frequencies of math activities were measured in 123 children ( = 3.9 years) and one of their parents. High levels of parent number talk were associated with higher math achievement among children with higher inhibitory control. This association was not seen in children with lower inhibitory control, for children's vocabulary as the outcome measure, or for parents' overall talk or parent-reported math activities as the opportunity measures. Thus, children may differentially benefit from parental math input depending on their cognitive abilities and this association is specific to parental number talk and children's math abilities.

A data-driven, transdiagnostic approach was used to identify the cognitive dimensions linked with learning in a mixed group of 805 children aged 5 to 18 years recognised as having problems in attention, learning and memory by a health or education practitioner. Assessments included phonological processing, information processing speed, short-term and working memory, and executive functions, and attainments in word reading, spelling, and maths. Data reduction methods identified three dimensions of phonological processing, processing speed and executive function for the sample as a whole. This model was comparable for children with and without ADHD. The severity of learning difficulties in literacy was linked with phonological processing skills, and in maths with executive control. Associations between cognition and learning were similar across younger and older children and individuals with and without ADHD, although stronger links between learning-related problems and both executive skills and processing speed were observed in children with ADHD. The results establish clear domain-specific cognitive pathways to learning that distinguish individuals in the heterogeneous population of children struggling to learn.