High-intensity interval training (HIIT) may elicit different skeletal muscle responses compared to work-matched moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT). The effect of work-matched HIIT versus MICT on myofibrillar protein synthesis remains to be determined. In the present study, we assessed the effect of short-term HIIT versus MICT on myofibrillar protein synthesis rates using a single-leg within-participant design. Ten healthy young men (age: 20 ± 1 years) performed six to eight training sessions with each leg over 2 weeks while ingesting deuterated water to assess myofibrillar protein synthesis. One leg was randomly assigned to perform HIIT and the other MICT. Skeletal muscle biopsies were collected at rest from one leg before and after a 2-week habituation period and from both legs after the training period to assess myofibrillar protein synthesis rates. HIIT and MICT increased single-leg maximal power output (main effect, p < .01), with no differences between legs (interaction: p = .61). Myofibrillar protein synthesis rates did not differ between the habituation period, MICT, or HIIT (1.39 ± 0.16%, 1.24 ± 0.30%, and 1.42 ± 0.31% per day, respectively; p = .29). In conclusion, we observed no detectable differences in daily myofibrillar protein synthesis rates between HIIT or work-matched MICT when assessed over a 2-week exercise training period in recreationally active young adult men.

Preexercise caffeine intake has proven to exert ergogenic effects on cycling performance. However, controversy exists on whether caffeine ingested during prolonged exercise could attenuate performance decrements. We aimed to assess the effect of caffeine ingested during prolonged cycling on subsequent time-trial (TT) performance in trained cyclists. The study followed a triple-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled cross-over design. Thirteen well-trained Junior cyclists (16.3 ± 0.5 years) performed a field-based 8-min TT under "fresh" conditions and after two work-matched field-based bouts designed to simulate a short cycling race (total energy expenditure of ∼20 kJ/kg and ∼90-min duration). During the latter sessions, participants consumed caffeine (6 mg/kg) or a placebo ∼60 min before the TT. We assessed power output, heart rate, and rating of perceived exertion during the TT and mood state (Brunel Mood Scale) before and after each TT. Participants attained a lower average power output during the TT with the placebo (352 ± 34 W) compared with the fresh condition (367 ± 36 W, p = .009, Cohen's d = 1.02), whereas this decline was not observed in the caffeine condition (363 ± 40 W, p = 1.000, vs. fresh, d = 0.25). Differences between the caffeine and placebo conditions did not reach statistical significance (p = .103), although they were moderate (3.1%, d = 0.66) and surpassed the estimated smallest worthwhile change (defined as 2%). No significant differences were found for heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, or mood states. High-dose caffeine intake during a simulated cycling race seems to partly attenuate performance impairments on subsequent TT in Junior cyclists, although further research is needed to confirm its effectiveness compared with a placebo.

Elite/professional cyclists often experience injuries and illnesses that lead to loss of training time/quality and reduced performance. Consequently, mitigating these problems is a high priority for multiple stakeholders, including athletes, coaches, sports medicine and allied health practitioners, and race organizers. This Union Cycliste Internationale-endorsed paper reviews the evidence for nutritional interventions in preventing and managing common injuries and illnesses in elite cycling, including skin injuries, upper respiratory tract infections, gastrointestinal disturbances, and sports-related concussions. Ensuring adequate protein (1.5-2.0 g·kg-1·day-1) and consumption of key micronutrients involved in wound healing (e.g., vitamin C and zinc) may optimize skin healing, albeit with no direct evidence in cyclists. Nutritional management strategies for upper respiratory tract infection include ingesting appropriate amounts of carbohydrate and protein to support training loads, optimizing vitamin D status, and possibly probiotic and polyphenol supplementation. Supplementation with other nutrients (omega-3 fats, glutamine, and vitamin C) also has come with some supportive, albeit mixed, evidence. Short-term low fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols diets; gut training; and use of mixed saccharide (glucose/maltodextrin-fructose) foods/supplements are evidence-supported strategies for reducing gastrointestinal symptoms, while probiotic supplementation, carbohydrate hydrogels, and cool/cold beverages currently have equivocal evidence. Promoting personal hygiene and food safety principles are important factors in avoiding gastrointestinal infections. Long-chain omega-3 fats and creatine monohydrate may reduce the severity of traumatic brain injuries, though supportive evidence is largely from animal models or based on head injury biomarkers in humans. Nutritional needs will ultimately vary depending on cycling discipline (road, track, cyclocross, mountain, and BMX), training and competitions loads, lifestyle, and environmental factors.

Cycling is one of the most popular sports worldwide, with competition events ranging from a few seconds (e.g., track sprint) to several days (e.g., road cycling 3-week Grand Tours). Professional cycling is arguably at the pinnacle of endurance sport demands due to the large number of events, range in durations, and variation in race conditions that these athletes must successfully negotiate. Numerous factors can affect performance in cycling, notably the type of event (e.g., track vs. road, single-day vs. multistage race); extrinsic conditions (e.g., race profile, weather conditions, altitude, team tactics); and individual variables (e.g., mental, physical, physiological, and technical attributes, nutritional strategies). In the present review, we aim to summarize the main factors underlying cycling performance. Particularly, we discuss current literature quantifying physiological and energetic demands imposed by races of different cycling modalities-albeit with a particular focus on road cycling-the factors associated with success in these races, the physical and physiological characteristics of elite/professional cyclists and their training regimens, and how these factors may be influenced by nutrition. Continued development in elite cycling requires a combination of traditional physiological markers with individual anthropometric and power-duration curve characteristics, as we move toward clustering of typologies and, ultimately, individual optimization of the training process.

Implementing a high-quality approach to the methodological classification and control of the ovarian hormone status of female participants in research is challenging and complex. These complexities have likely hindered the formulation of robust conclusions regarding the effects of the ovarian hormones (estrogen and progesterone) on sport science outcomes. We have therefore developed practical study design tools and resources to aid researchers in the pursuit of high-quality research in women. Specifically, this paper presents a tiered framework outlining varying levels of methodological classification and control of participant ovarian hormone status in exercise and performance studies involving postpubertal to premenopausal female participants. To support implementation, we also provide resources including a flowchart, participant prescreening questionnaire, and  examples of applying the tiering system in practice. These tools will assist researchers in planning and study design that adopts appropriate classification and control of ovarian hormone status of its participants. These guides have been generated from our experiences of implementing a high-quality approach in the applied sports science setting. We discuss the balance between methodological rigor, practical constraints, participant burden, and the generalizability of findings. Ultimately, this paper provides resources to assist researchers in adopting high-quality, suitable approaches to studying female athletes, regardless of available resources thereby facilitating the correction of sex-based research biases in the literature.

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of short-term oral L-arginine (ARG) supplementation on vascular parameters, nitric oxide (NO) concentration, and muscular performance during upper limb resistance exercise in healthy young men. A randomized, double-blind, crossover design was used with 16 recreationally trained men. Participants ingested ARG (3.2-9.6 g/day) or placebo for 4 days, separated by a 14-day washout. On the fourth day, they completed three sets of biceps curls at 65% of one-repetition maximum to concentric failure. Primary outcomes included total repetitions performed and fatigue ratio. Secondary outcomes comprised brachial artery diameter, peak systolic velocity, blood flow (velocity-time integral), vascular resistance index, plasma NO, and blood lactate concentrations. No significant differences were observed between ARG and placebo in muscular endurance (total repetitions, p = .305), volume load, or fatigue ratio. Plasma NO levels did not differ between conditions (p = .522). Although brachial artery diameter significantly increased 1-min postexercise in the ARG condition compared with placebo (p = .023), no differences were found for velocity-time integral, peak systolic velocity, resistance index, or blood pressure. Blood lactate concentrations rose after exercise in both groups, with a nonsignificant value in the ARG condition (p = .09 at 9-min postexercise). Short-term oral ARG supplementation did not enhance muscular endurance, systemic NO concentration, or vascular function during upper limb resistance exercise in healthy young men. Although a minor increase in brachial artery dilation was observed shortly after exercise, the effect was transient and insufficient to support meaningful ergogenic benefits.

Overweight and obesity are associated with dysregulation of appetite-related hormones and altered energy intake. Exercise has been proposed as a strategy to modulate appetite and support weight management. A comprehensive search of databases, including Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Academic Search Premier, and EBSCOHost, identified 19 studies (34 trials) for inclusion. Using a random-effects model, we calculated effect sizes (ES) for hormone concentration, appetite perception, and energy intake. Acute exercise exerted a moderate suppressive effect on acylated ghrelin (ES = -0.73) and a moderate, nonsignificant effect on insulin (ES = -0.55). A large but nonsignificant increase was observed for glucagon-like peptide-1 (ES = 3.96), while peptide YY showed a small, nonsignificant increase (ES = 0.24). Exercise significantly reduced hunger (ES = -0.35) and prospective food consumption (ES = -0.26), with minimal effects on fullness (ES = 0.16) and satiety (ES = 0.15). Significant reductions were found in both relative (ES = -0.54) and absolute energy intake (ES = -0.19). Exercise may be an effective short-term intervention for reducing appetite and energy intake among people living with overweight and obesity. Registration: PROSPERO CRD42024623903.

The sport of tennis involves unique nutritional demands for the physical and technical aspects of match play and training, as well as the nutritional challenges associated with extensive travel and a lengthy competition calendar. An expert group assembled by The International Tennis Federation, the Women's Tennis Association, and the Association of Tennis Professionals has produced a scientific review of current evidence to inform practical recommendations for high-performance tennis. The narrative summary considers the diversity within the tennis community, including male and female players, youth players, and wheelchair players. The Expert Group Statement addresses nine specific topics: (a) introduction to tennis; (b) physiological characteristics of tennis training and match play; (c) training nutrition; (d) body composition, low energy availability, and relative energy deficiency in sport; (e) match-day nutrition; (f) dietary supplements for tennis performance; (g) environmental and travel issues; (h) nutrition guidelines during periods of illness and injury rehabilitation; and (i) special population groups. The statement advocates for an evidence-based approach to nutrition in high-performance tennis and emphasizes a "food first" philosophy, prioritizing food over supplements to meet nutrient requirements effectively. In recognition of the benefits of sound nutrition, strategies in supporting health and performance over a player's career, academies, national federations, and international organizations are encouraged to engage professionals with appropriate nutrition-related qualifications and professional registrations to support players effectively.

Crossover randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are common in exercise and nutrition sciences. Since researchers randomize participants to different sequences of the treatment and comparator/control conditions, crossover RCTs are powerful for detecting mean treatment effects under certain circumstances. We aim to review the information that can be derived from crossover RCTs about treatment response heterogeneity-a fundamental issue in precision medicine for tailoring treatments to individuals. After covering the fundamental design issues, we describe the variance components that underlie observed data. The crucial person-by-treatment variance component can be quantified from a repeated or "replicate" crossover RCT by exposing participants to multiple cycles of trial conditions. As a type of n-of-1 trial, replicate crossover RCTs have important design and statistical power considerations, which we describe. By synthesizing findings from our six published replicate crossover RCTs, we also compare various data analysis approaches. We find general agreement between these approaches, and a link between within-person consistency of response and the detection of person-by-treatment interactions. We postulate that a paired "variance comparison," for example, the Pitman-Morgan test, provides some preliminary information regarding response heterogeneity from a typical single-cycle crossover RCT. Nevertheless, underlying assumptions are critical, rendering these comparisons as merely exploratory until an n-of-1 or replicate crossover RCT is undertaken. Multiple-cycle n-of-1 trials and replicate crossover RCTs are underused but are informative for treatment response heterogeneity. However, these trials are still only one component of the process for predicting individual magnitude of response from any personal traits, which is the "holy grail" of personalized treatment.

Caffeine (CAF) mouth rinsing has been considered a practical nutritional strategy among athletes. Recent studies indicate that this nutritional strategy's efficacy may depend on the athlete's prandial state. Therefore, the main aim of the current study is to determine the effect of CAF mouth rinsing on a battery of soccer-specific tests of soccer players in fasted (FST) or fed states (FED). Thirteen male soccer players (age: 18.1 ± 0.9 years, body mass: 60.1 ± 8.4 kg, height: 174.2 ± 7.3 cm, and body mass index: 20.14 ± 2.7 kg/m2) randomly participated in a randomized, double-blind, Latin square study design. Participants completed four experimental trials while performing eight serial mouth rinses of 750-mg CAF or a taste-matched placebo (PLA) for 15 s and then immediately expectorated. Two trials commenced 2 hr after a high-carbohydrate breakfast (FED), and two trials were performed after an overnight fast (FST). Following the final mouth rinse, sprint test, countermovement jump, Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1, and rating of perceived exertion were measured, respectively. There was a main effect of condition for Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 performance (p = .021), while interaction between Condition × Prandial (p = .671) and the main effect of prandial state (p = .437) was not significant for Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (CAF-FST = 2,155 ± 484 m, PLA-FST = 1,933 ± 549 m, CAF-FED = 2,098 ± 679 m, and PLA-FED = 1,864 ± 535 m). In addition, there was no significant main effect of condition, prandial, and interaction between Condition × Prandial for the sprint test and countermovement jump and the rating of perceived exertion (all p > .5). These data suggest that CAF mouth rinsing increases intermittent running performance in soccer players. This improvement is likely to be similar in the FST and FED states.

We investigated the effects of 8-weeks of eccentric resistance exercise (RE) with hydrolyzed collagen supplementation on patellar tendon (PT) cross-sectional area (CSA), vastus lateralis (VL) muscle size, maximum voluntary force  (MVF), and peak rate of force development (pRFD) in international female field hockey Master athletes. Twenty-two premenopausal women (37 ± 2 years, 68.9 ± 8.0 kg, and 1.68 ± 0.04 m) were randomly assigned to collagen (COL; n = 10) and placebo (PLA; n = 12) cohorts in a triple-blind design. They completed three eccentric RE sessions per week for 8 weeks in addition to their regular hockey training. Before each RE session, participants ingested 30 g hydrolyzed COL or 32.9 g maltodextrin (PLA), together with 500 mg vitamin C. Pre- and postintervention, we assessed MVF and pRFD during a voluntary multijoint isometric muscle contraction and countermovement jump height, and VL thickness and PT CSA were measured with ultrasonography. MVF increased from 892 ± 366 to 1,011 ± 420 N (p = .020) and VL thickness increased from 21 ± 3 to 22 ± 3 mm (p = .015), with no Group × Time interactions (p > .05), whereas countermovement jump height did not change (p = .238). PT CSA increased in both groups (p < .001) but more in COL (116 ± 12 to 121 ± 13 mm2) than PLA (109 ± 22 to 111 ± 22 mm2, p = .014). Similarly, pRFD increased in both groups (p = .002) but more in COL (7.9 ± 1.3 to 10.1 ± 2.4 kN/s) than PLA (8.2 ± 2.4 to 9.6 ± 2.9 kN/s, p = .039). Therefore, hydrolyzed collagen supplementation enhanced gains in PT CSA and pRFD following 8 weeks of eccentric RE in elite female field hockey Master athletes, thus providing an effective strategy to improve physical performance in this underresearched population.

This study evaluated the rehydration efficacy of a commercially available milk permeate-containing sports drink with high osmolality (MPSD) compared with a traditional sports drink (TSD), a high-potassium sports drink (HKSD), and water (W). Twelve young, healthy adults (four women) underwent a 2-hr exercise-induced dehydration protocol in the heat (29.9 °C ± 1.5 °C) until losing 2% of body weight, followed by a 4-hr rehydration period. Participants consumed on four separate occasions one of the following beverages: (a) TSD (Na+: 20 mmol/L, K+: 3.6 mmol/L, osmolality: 385 mmol/kg); (b) HKSD (Na+: 3.6 mmol/L, K+: 37.9 mmol/L, osmolality: 364 mmol/kg); (c) MPSD (Na+: 21 mmol/L, K+: 28.7 mmol/L, osmolality: 576 mmol/kg); or (d) plain water (W). Fluids (150% of body weight loss) were administered in four doses every 15 min during the first hour. Whole-body net fluid balance remained negative, but MPSD resulted in significantly higher net fluid balance at 180 min (-0.38% ± 0.3%) and 240 min (-0.66% ± 0.3%) than in other trials (p < .05). MPSD also led to lower cumulative urine volume (1,268 ± 173 ml) than HKSD (1,796 ± 459 ml), TSD (1,493 ± 211 ml), and W (1,565 ± 501 ml; p < .05). Osmotic excretion in MPSD was significantly higher than in all trials at 120, 180, and 240 min (p < .05), and free water clearance was lower at 180 and 240 min (p < .05). TSD promoted greater plasma volume restoration (1.5% ± 5%) than MPSD (-3.7% ± 6.5%) and HKSD (-5.5% ± 7.8%) at 60 min (p < .05). A milk permeate-based sports drink is more effective for postexercise rehydration than TSD, HKSD, and water when consumed at 150% of the body weight lost.

Bicycle motorcross racing is a unique sprint cycling discipline that takes place on a 300- to 450-m outdoor track with an 8-m start hill. A single race is 30-40 s in duration, and athletes can compete in up to seven races per day. Athletes require highly specific physiological attributes to meet the training and competition demands, and successful riders can produce high peak power outputs and demonstrate technical and tactical superiority over their opponents. Nutrition has a key role in optimizing athlete health, training adaptations, and overall athlete performance. This review will focus on the training and race demands for bicycle motorcross race and fueling strategies to support training and racing outcomes.

This article provides a recap of the 10 Questions/10 Experts session at the 2025 American College of Sports Medicine Annual Meeting. Each of the speakers considered the validity of common "myths" while providing evidence-based opinions to support or bust myths addressing the following questions: (a) Do people get enough dietary creatine from everyday foods? (b) Are nonsugar sweeteners an effective way to reduce energy intake in athletes? (c) Do beef jerky or chocolate milk provide enough leucine, making branched-chain amino acid supplementation unnecessary? (d) Can honey, applesauce, or other foods effectively replace carbohydrate gels for fueling exercise? (e) Is a homemade sports drink made from juice and a bit of salt just as effective as a commercially available sports drink? (f) Do vegetarians need to supplement carnosine and carnitine? (g) Is teff grain a rich source of iron? (h) Is coconut water a sufficient replacement for electrolyte drinks? (i) Can B vitamins influence the accuracy of urine color scoring to determine a low versus high urine concentration as a marker of hydration status? and (j) What is the impact of preexercise food-sourced calcium intake on acute bone metabolism in response to exercise? This article describes the content of each of the presentations including the most important outcomes and conclusions drawn by the presenters.

The fundamental goal of nutrition for training is to provide the required energy and substrate to sustain the target training volume and intensity that is necessary to induce desired physiological adaptations. However, aside from fueling and recovery, it is now recognized that nutrient availability also modulates the activation of cell signaling pathways that regulate adaptations associated with both endurance and strength training. Such developments are the guiding principles underpinning "nutritional periodization" wherein energy, macronutrient, and micronutrient availability are deliberately manipulated across the microcycle, mesocycle, and macrocycle with the strategic goal to promote training adaptations, support recovery, manipulate body composition, and optimize competition performance. In addition to total "daily" nutrient intake, the elite athlete must, therefore, adjust their energy and carbohydrate intake in a meal-by-meal and day-by-day manner (i.e., carbohydrate periodization) in accordance with the energetic demands and training objectives of each specific training session. In addition to fueling (and refueling) for the work required, daily protein intake should at least be 1.6-2.1 g·kg-1·day-1 not only to account for amino acid oxidation during exercise but also, importantly, to promote tissue remodeling, notably skeletal muscle. Emerging evidence also supports the rationale for nutraceuticals to promote recovery and sleep, though the potential effect of such compounds in blunting training adaptation should also be considered. Taken together, it is increasingly clear that nutrition is a critical enabler to successful training outcomes, and as such, the sport nutritionist should be considered an integral member of an athlete's coaching and performance support team.

Track cycling is a unique discipline whereby events take place on a velodrome using fixed-gear bicycles. Events cover a spectrum of durations ranging from <11 s through to ∼60 min. Therefore, diverse and specialized physiological attributes are required to meet the specific demands of competition. Nutrition has a fundamental role in optimizing athlete performance through maintaining overall health, fueling training to develop the required physiological characteristics for success and enabling athletes to meet the energy demands of competition. This review will focus on how nutrition can be optimized to best support the training periodization and competition requirements and provide practical recommendations on fueling strategies for track cycling.

The Union Cycliste Internationale recognizes several mountain biking (MTB) disciplines, including downhill, enduro, cross-country short track, cross-country Olympic, cross-country marathon, and multiday stage racing. Cyclocross is recognized as a separate cycling discipline. Both MTB and cyclocross include cycling on off-road surfaces of varying technicality on specialized bicycles purposed for the respective disciplines. The various discipline-specific racing formats and intensities dictate nutritional recommendations. High-paced race starts and high average race intensities support standard recommendations for caffeine and carbohydrate ingestion before and during racing and the adoption of recovery nutrient guidelines, tailored for each discipline. Notably, current quantification methods underestimate exercise intensity and exercise energy expenditure (EEE) in MTB and cyclocross because of the inability to quantify the additional energy cost of isometric contractions associated with bicycle handling while negotiating obstacles and dampening vibrations. Therefore, deriving EEE and target energy intake based on power measurements provide only minimum estimates, requiring a correction factor. Accordingly, minimum target energy intake should equate to the sum of power-derived EEE, +0.24 kcal·kg-1·km-1 off-road, resting metabolic rate, and an additional 0.45-fold resting metabolic rate (for nonexercise activity). Daily training nutrition based on standard guidelines is tailored by discipline, expected intensity, duration, and training EEE. Guidelines apply equally to both sexes. In addition, certain nutritional practices are suggested to support long-term bone health for MTB and cyclocross athletes.

Technological innovations can provide cyclists and their support team additional data. These data have potential to improve understanding of performance determinants and could be used to identify and tailor nutritional strategies to improve cycling performance. This potential, however, is dependent on the quality, interpretation, and practical use of the data generated. In this review, several technologies that are used or have some potential for use, in professional cycling are discussed. These include power meters, continuous glucose monitors, portable sweat and lactate analyzers, noninvasive estimation of muscle fiber typology, ultrasound for muscle glycogen concentrations and subcutaneous fat quantification, noninvasive core body temperature sensors, and portable substrate metabolism analyzers. The evidence regarding the validity of these technologies is critically evaluated, alongside a discussion of the potential rationale (or lack thereof) for their use in guiding nutritional strategies. Some of these technologies have sufficient validity and reliability to provide data of sufficient quality and, combined with appropriate rationale, can inform some nutritional strategies (e.g., energy expenditure from power meters). In contrast, other technologies either have insufficient rationale to inform a nutritional strategy or currently lack the validity and/or reliability to provide data of sufficient quality to inform nutritional strategies. Practitioners working with athletes are recommended to consider whether there is any practical value in each metric and, if so, then consider the validity and reliability of a method to measure such a metric before implementation.