The COVID-19 pandemic generated mental health stressors for parents as they faced new health risks and navigated disruptions to employment, schooling, and care arrangements. Drawing on 2021 survey data from Canadian parents of children 10 years old and younger, we describe the relationship between work/care pandemic stressors and mental health, and employ Kitagawa-Oaxaca-Blinder decompositions to examine how these contribute to mental health gaps by gender and its intersection with having household members perceived to be at high risk in relation to COVID-19. We find that mothers' mental health was more negatively affected than fathers'. Differences in exposure to work/care stressors help explain this gap, with the "mental load," perceptions of inequity in how households responded to pandemic care demands, and greater reported deterioration in work-family balance and career prospects particularly salient. Mothers, but not fathers, with high-risk household members were also more exposed to key work/care stressors, contributing to the worst pandemic mental health for this group. While the relationship between stressors and mental health was similar for mothers and fathers overall, high-risk status moderated this relationship, with employment or care disruptions that reduced COVID-19 exposure less likely to be associated with poorer mental health for parents in high-risk families.

Emerging research documents concerning mental health outcomes among essential workers at the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, mental health outcomes may have varied across states in the United States, as state-level policies differed. Questions also remain about the mental health of workers during the second year of the pandemic. Using nationally representative data from the U.S. Household Pulse Survey (April-July 2021), we documented the mental health of essential workers and tested whether state-level policies (e.g., mask mandates) reduced mental health disparities for essential workers. Results show that food and beverage essential workers experienced heightened anxiety and depression relative to nonessential workers. Moreover, for food and beverage workers, disparities in mental health were smaller in states with mask mandates, expanded paid leave, and higher minimum wage compared to states without these policies. The present study points to the potential for state-level policies to protect the mental health of essential workers.

Women were the driving force behind the expansion of higher education in the United States. Their rise in enrollment developed alongside a rapid increase in educational expectations. This study explores the question of how these landmark shifts in women's expanded expectations, attainment, and the (mis)alignment of the two have influenced mental health now that these women have entered midlife. Using data from the sophomore cohort of the 1980 High School and Beyond (HS&B:So) study through its 2014 midlife follow-up, results show that for women in the sophomore cohort ( = 2,010), exceeding educational expectations is significantly associated with an increase in experiencing serious mental illness in midlife compared to meeting or missing educational expectations. These results suggest that overachieving educational expectations carry distinct psychological consequences.

Financial hardship was pervasive during the COVID-19 pandemic, with adverse consequences for mental health. However, access to state-level paid sick leave during the pandemic had the potential to reduce the mental health burden of financial hardship-a possibility that has not been tested in prior research. Using nationally representative survey data on more than 1.7 million individuals from the Household Pulse Survey (August 2020 to November 2022) merged with state-level data on paid sick leave policies, we estimated a battery of two-way fixed-effects linear probability models to examine whether paid leave policies buffered the association between financial hardship and depression and anxiety risks. Results show that experiencing financial hardship increased depression and anxiety risks but that the mental health consequences of financial hardship were dampened for respondents living in a state with an active paid sick leave policy. Moreover, because racially minoritized adults, women, transgender adults, and less-educated adults were more likely to experience financial hardship over the period, our study highlights the potential for paid leave policies to reduce population inequities in mental health. We point to paid sick leave policies as an important macro-level determinant of mental health with especially salient mental health consequences for marginalized groups.

Although researchers have consistently linked structural neighborhood disadvantage with poorer mental health, the underlying mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. In this paper, we test whether the association between structural neighborhood disadvantage and psychological distress is mediated by perceived neighborhood disorder and divine struggles. Using longitudinal national survey data from the (MIDUS 2 and 3) study (n = 2,083), we employed structural equation modeling and marginal models with unstructured covariances. Our mediation analysis confirmed the indirect effect of neighborhood structural disadvantage (concentrated socioeconomic disadvantage) on psychological distress (depression and anxiety) through perceived neighborhood disorder (perceptions of neighborhood safety and the built environment) and divine struggles (strained relations with God). Our results build on previous work by demonstrating that divine struggles may play a role in explaining why living in a neighborhood that is characterized by structural disadvantage and disorder is often associated with poorer mental health.

The life course perspective and cumulative inequality theory suggest that childhood adversity, occurring during a sensitive period of the life course, can have long-term consequences for adult mental health and well-being. Yet, the long-term influence of adversity on adult outcomes may depend on both the features of adverse childhood experiences (e.g., the number, type, and co-occurrence of adversities) as well as the outcome assessed. Using latent class analysis applied to several waves of prospective data from the Great Smoky Mountain Study (GSMS; N=1,420) we identify subpopulations that are similar in their adversity experiences before age 18. We then predict adult internalizing and substance use disorder diagnoses by adversity experience. Results reveal five distinct classes of adversity, with unique risks for specific diagnoses in adulthood.

In early 2020, a COVID-19 outbreak occurred in Hubei Province of China. Exploiting the geographic concentration of China's COVID-19 cases in Hubei (the initial epicenter), we compare Hubei and non-Hubei residents to examine the medium-term effect of exposure to the COVID-19 outbreak on mental well-being. We examine flourishing-a comprehensive assessment of well-being that is not merely the absence of mental illness-and investigate a broad set of psychosocial and economic mediators that may link initial outbreak exposure to subsequent flourishing. We use ordinary least squares regression models to analyze national panel data collected in early 2020 and late 2021 ( = 3,169). Results show that flourishing scores remain lower for Hubei than non-Hubei residents almost two years following the early 2020 COVID-19 outbreak. Mediation analysis reveals that Hubei residents' lower incidences of job promotion and lower sense of control are the two most important mediators accounting for their lower flourishing relative to non-Hubei residents. Combined, this study provides the first evidence of the medium-term psychological vulnerability borne by individuals who lived in the initial epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings on the intervening mechanisms shed light on the policy initiatives needed for post-pandemic mental well-being recovery in China and other countries.

Shift work is an integral part of living in a 24-hour society. However, shift work can disrupt circadian rhythms, negatively impacting health. Guided by the Stress Process Model (SPM), this study examines the association between shift work and depressive symptoms and investigates whether sleep health (duration, quality, and latency) mediates this relationship among midlife adults. Utilizing data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 cohort ( = 6,372), findings show that working evening, night, and irregular shifts is associated with increased depressive symptoms. The results also show that part of the association between shift work and depressive symptoms among night and irregular shift workers, is indirect, operating through short sleep during the week and on the weekend. Although shift work can negatively affect mental health, getting more restorative sleep may mitigate part of the harmful mental health consequences of non-standard work schedules.

Personal networks yield important health benefits for individuals, in part by providing more opportunities to be in the company of others throughout daily life. Social accompaniment is generally believed to protect against momentary feelings of loneliness, although this hypothesis remains understudied. We examine how personal network size shapes older adults' experiences of momentary loneliness and whether this association varies by momentary social accompaniment. We use three waves of ecological momentary assessments (EMA; = 12,359) and personal network data from 343 older adults in the Chicago Health and Activity in Real-Time study. Older adults with large personal networks experienced more intense momentary loneliness compared to those with smaller social networks when they were momentarily alone. This association was more pronounced among men. We discuss how research approaches that bridge global and momentary measures of social connectedness can reveal important nuances of our understanding of how interpersonal factors influence later-life well-being over time.

Drawing on data from a community survey with a sizeable subsample of people with physical, intellectual, and psychological disabilities in the Intermountain West region of the United States ( = 2,043), this investigation examined the association of social stressors stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic with ableism or disability-related discrimination. We further assessed the significance of these associations for variation by disability status in psychological well-being with a moderated mediation analysis. Study findings provide clear evidence that greater pandemic-related stressor exposure was associated with greater discrimination, which in turn increased the psychologically distressing aspects of the pandemic for people with disabilities relative to people without disabilities. This set of findings challenges us to think about how we engage in research concerning ableism and the proliferation of macro-level stressors such as those associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings also support the application of a minority stress model in addressing mental health contingencies among people with disabilities-in this case, in examining the pandemic's psychological impact.

Racism-related stress frameworks posit that the discriminatory experiences of one's loved ones may threaten one's well-being, but relatively few studies have examined how they may impact mental health beyond childhood and adolescence. Using data from the Nashville Stress and Health Study ( = 1,252), the present study assessed the prevalence of vicarious experiences of discrimination among subsamples of Black men ( = 297) and women ( = 330), examined the association between vicarious experiences of discrimination and psychological distress among Black men and women, and evaluated the impact of vicarious discrimination on psychological distress in the context of other stressors. Results suggest that Black women report more vicarious exposure to specific types of discrimination. Furthermore, vicariously experienced discrimination was associated with higher levels of psychological distress among Black women, but not among Black men. Our findings extend the literature on racism-related stress and offer new insights for interventions aimed at reducing racial disparities in mental health.

The current study integrates stress process model and intersectionality framework to explore psychological effects of an intersectional stressor experienced by black women: gendered racial microaggressions (GRMs). Prior research suggests GRMS negatively influence black women's mental health. However, it is unclear whether specific dimensions of GRMS are more or less impactful to mental health. This study investigates: To what extent do black women experience GRMS overall and its specific dimensions: Assumptions of Beauty and Sexual Objectification; Silenced and Marginalized; Strong Black Woman Stereotype; Angry Black Woman Stereotype? What is the relationship between GRMS and depressive symptoms? Do psychosocial resources (i.e., social support, self-esteem, mastery) mediate the association between GRMS and depressive symptoms? We use data from black women attending a historically Black university in the Southeast ( = 202). We employed ordinary least squares regression analysis and performed mediation analysis. Study results revealed a positive association between GRMS and depressive symptoms; the Angry Black Woman Stereotype GRMS dimension had the most robust influence on depressive symptoms. Psychosocial resources partially mediated the relationship between GRMS and depressive symptoms. Study results suggest that sociological stress research underestimates the influence of stress on black women's health when intersectional stressors like GRMS are not included in analytic models.

After years of emphasis on pre-migration trauma as the major determinant of refugee mental health, researchers have begun to explore the effects of post-migration stressors on refugees' distress. However, few studies have brought together refugees' emic understandings of the effects of economic stressors on their mental health with quantitative datasets to further explore the salience of stress processes as an explanatory mechanism. In qualitative interviews, 40% of 290 recently resettled adult refugees noted that economic stressors were a major source of distress and described pathways through which these stressors negatively influenced their mental health by limiting their ability to learn English, obtain meaningful employment, access healthcare, maintain contact with their families, and integrate in their communities. In structural equation modeling of quantitative data, we tested several possible hypotheses that emerged from the qualitative findings. We find that post-migration economic stressors mediated the relationship between migration-related trauma and post-migration emotional distress and PTSD symptoms. These findings provide empirical support for stress proliferation as a mechanism through which trauma exposure contributes to distress.

Using six waves of data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (2007-2017) and the Childhood Retrospective Circumstances Study (2014) (n=3,240), this paper estimates how childhood experiences with parental mental health problems shape trajectories of children's own distress in adulthood. Findings indicate that those who experience poor parental mental health have consistently greater distress than their non-exposed counterparts throughout adulthood. More severe and longer exposures to parental mental health problems corresponds to even greater distress in adulthood. The gender of the parent afflicted does not predict differences in adult mental health, but those individuals exposed to both maternal and paternal poor mental health have the greatest distress in adulthood. Together, results suggest that parental mental health during children's formative years is a significant predictor of life course distress and that heterogeneity in this experience corresponds to unique mental health trajectories.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is tied to higher levels of depression, but the social factors that shape these associations are not well understood. This study considers whether family transitions affect depressive symptoms differently for young adults with and without childhood symptoms of ADHD at subthreshold or diagnostic levels. Between-within regression analysis of nationally representative longitudinal survey data shows that transitions into cohabitation and parenthood affect depressive symptoms differently for young adults with and without childhood symptoms of ADHD. Specifically, within-person effects indicate that transitions into cohabitation and parenthood are tied to decreases in depressive symptoms, but only for young adults without childhood symptoms of ADHD. In contrast, transitions into marriage are tied to decreases in depressive symptoms, and transitions out of coresidential unions are tied to increases in depressive symptoms, regardless of childhood symptoms of ADHD. The results suggest that some family transitions may work to widen ADHD disparities in depression, under-scoring the importance of family contexts for shaping mental health throughout the life course.

In this paper, we contribute to a growing literature on debt and mental health and ask whether patterns of unsecured debt accumulation and repayment over two decades are associated with depressive symptoms at age 50. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979 Cohort and group trajectory models, we have three key findings. First, we find substantial heterogeneity in debt trajectories across the life course. Second, respondents who report consistently high debt levels across the life course or who cycle in and out of high debt report significantly more depressive symptoms than respondents who hold consistently low levels of debt. These findings hold for both absolute and relative (debt-to-income) debt. Third, we find that the association between debt and depressive symptoms is strongest among respondents with less than a college degree, but we find less evidence for heterogeneity by race in this cohort.

This study considers when, whether, and how spouses encourage professional mental health care by analyzing qualitative data from 90 in-depth interviews with gay, lesbian, and heterosexual spouses. Findings show that a majority of spouses are engaged in promoting each other's mental health care but that the strategies used to promote care vary by gender and the gender composition of the couple. The majority of gay men and lesbian women promote care by framing mental health problems as largely biochemical, fixable only with professional care or medicine, and work to destigmatize this care. Lesbian women uniquely emphasize the influence of a spouse's symptoms on marital quality as a reason to pursue care. Some heterosexual women and men also report seeing their spouse's mental health care as something for them to deal with on their own and thus do not encourage care. This study has important implications for researchers looking to understand why some individuals seek mental health care and others do not and provides policymakers insight into mental health interventions via spouses.

Time spent with children has become a central concern in North American parenting culture. Using the 2011 Canadian Work, Stress, and Health study (N = 2,007), we examine employed parents' perceptions about having too little time with children and whether these relate to parents' mental and physical health. The "pernicious stressor" hypothesis posits that the demands of paid work combined with intensive mothering or involved fathering create unique time tensions that act as chronic stressors and that these are associated with poorer health and well-being. Alternatively, the "public face" hypothesis suggests that parents often present themselves as good mothers or fathers through an expressed lack of time with children, but statements are superficial and thus are related to health. We find that about half of employed parents perceive time shortfalls with children; work hours, schedule control, location of work, and family context predict perceived time deficits with children. Supporting the pernicious stressor hypothesis, expressed time deficits are associated with distress, anger, and sleep problems, even when adjusting for work and family factors.

Although previous research has examined associations among masculinity, sexual orientation, minority stress, and mental health, these studies focused exclusively on individuals as units of analysis. This study investigates how men in same-sex relationships uniquely experience minority stress associated with their perceptions and performances of masculinity, as individuals and as couples. Qualitative, dyadic data are drawn from in-depth interviews with 24 male couples (48 partners), discussing two main stress themes- and Primary findings are (1) men in same-sex relationships are vulnerable to new forms of minority stress because their relationships increase visibility via others' masculinity, and (2) being in a same-sex relationship influences partners' self-perceptions of masculinity and their relationship dynamics. Findings improve insights regarding gender performance in minority stress processes affecting sexual minority men and their intimate relationships with one another. By virtue of their sexual minority and relationship statuses, men in same-sex relationships experience unique, masculinity-related stressors.

An internal locus of control may be particularly valuable for youth with low socioeconomic status (SES), yet the mechanisms that externalize their control remain unclear. This study uses data on 16,450 US 8 graders surveyed for the National Education Longitudinal Study in 1988 and 1990. Results indicate family income is more closely associated with adolescents' locus of control than parents' occupations and educational attainment, and that race does not independently affect adolescents' locus of control net of these other components of SES. Findings also indicate higher SES adolescents feel more internal locus of control in largest part because their parents discuss school more often with them, their homes have more books and other cognitive resources, they receive higher grades in middle school science and social studies, they are more likely to attend a private rather than public school, their friends are more academically oriented, and they feel more safe at school.

Discrimination due to personal characteristics (e.g., gender, sexuality, appearance) is a common yet stressful experience that is detrimental to mental health. Prior work has not considered how spouses in same- and different-sex marriages help each other cope with discrimination despite the importance of marriage for managing stress and adversity. We analyze survey data collected from both spouses in same-sex and different-sex marriages within the United States (=836 individuals) to examine whether support from spouses weakens the impact of discrimination on depressive symptoms. Results suggest that discrimination contributes to depressive symptoms, but greater support from spouses buffers the mental health consequences of discrimination. Individuals in same-sex marriages report more spousal support than do individuals in different-sex marriages, even after accounting for experiences of discrimination. Same-sex couples may get needed spousal support, whereas women married to men receive the least spousal support and may be vulnerable to stressors that challenge mental health.