The increasing prevalence of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) in adolescents and adults in recent decades is changing the paradigms of care provision across specialties, including pediatric and adult primary care and specialty services such as neurology. Transition into adulthood and transfer to adult care providers remains an underdeveloped area of care and research.

To review the current literature surrounding impact of sociodemographic factors, including race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, on care disparities for inborn errors of immunity (IEI).

Asthma is among the most common conditions managed by pediatricians. This review summarizes recent advances in our immunologic understanding of asthma, focusing on cell types implicated in pathogenesis outside of the Th2 paradigm. Early-life respiratory viral infections are a key risk factor for the development of pediatric asthma. Literature detailing the epidemiologic and immunologic connection between early-life viral infections and asthma is also reviewed.

Fetal neurology is a distinct subspecialty within pediatric neurology, and a core element of neonatal neurocritical care. Increased fidelity and availability of fetal imaging and increasing yields of advanced genetic testing help the fetal neurologist provide an assessment of potential neurodevelopmental outcomes when a suspected or confirmed fetal brain malformation is present. The postnatal care of infants with a previously diagnosed brain abnormality may include pediatricians in a general primary care setting. It is imperative that pediatricians have a basic understanding of common fetal neurologic conditions and comorbidities to provide the best care to new families facing these challenges.

This review examines the role of vascular health in children and adolescents with systemic hypertension. Like other areas of target organ damage (TOD), arterial dysfunction can have deleterious effects over time, leading to adverse cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction or stroke as an adult.

The mandated accessibility of the electronic health record (EHR), including direct patient access through a portal, has created a unique and important opportunity for clinicians to examine their communication. This development underscores the importance of understanding how language - both written and verbal - may inadvertently reinforce biases, perpetuate existing disparities, and potentially distance patients from care. Indeed, the language clinicians use - whether written or verbal - is not merely descriptive; it is a powerful intervention that can either build trust or perpetuate harm. While often unintentional, the misuse of language in a clinical context is a significant and modifiable driver of health disparities. We will examine the mechanisms by which biased words erode patient care and then propose concrete strategies to foster communication that are precise, respectful, and actively promotes health equity.

This review highlights the importance of promptly recognizing and correctly naming status dystonicus as a neurologic emergency in the outpatient and inpatient settings, and aims to equip general pediatricians with practical guidance to trigger rapid escalation of care through the recently published status dystonicus pathways.

The use of genetic testing within the pediatric population continues to expand as broad-based sequencing becoming more incorporated into routine practice. While these evaluations are also utilized within the military population, key points should be considered when providing these recommendations. This review aims to highlight the important differences between civilian and military genetics evaluations.

This review highlights recent developments in the use of machine learning supported facial feature analysis in the context of genetic and syndromic conditions. The review focusses on 2D image-based tools. The 2D images are easily obtained using handheld devices such as mobile phones and are more relevant to general practice than 3D image based systems.

Children with congenital or acquired cardiac disease are at increased risk for both ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. This review covers the epidemiology, presentation, acute management, and outcomes of stroke in children with heart disease.

The purpose of this review is to provide an update on monitoring, prevention, and treatment of infectious and noninfectious complications of phagocytic, humoral, and cellular immune deficiencies.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a hyperinflammatory state in adult and pediatric patients, with associated severe morbidity and mortality. Here, we provide an updated overview of HLH, associated triggers, diagnostic tools and criteria, as well as treatment considerations.

Sex steroid hormones and the gut microbiome are increasingly recognized as bidirectionally interacting regulators of growth, metabolism, and endocrine maturation. While most research has focused on adults, accumulating evidence indicates that these interactions are established early in life and influence pubertal timing, metabolic homeostasis, and neuroendocrine development. This review synthesizes current human evidence on microbiome-sex steroid relationships across childhood and adolescence, highlighting mechanistic insights and clinical implications for pediatric endocrinology.

Scoliosis and limb length discrepancy (LLD) are frequent findings in pediatric orthopedic practice. Because both conditions can alter posture and spinal alignment, distinguishing between a compensatory spinal curvature due to LLD and a true structural scoliosis is crucial. This review explores the relationship between scoliosis and LLD in children, emphasizing recent evidence and clinical strategies for accurate diagnosis and management.

Noonan syndrome and related disorders (RASopathies) affect ~1 in 2000 individuals and are associated with a wide range of phenotypic manifestations. It is highly likely that pediatricians and other pediatric subspecialists will encounter multiple patients with these diagnoses in their clinical practice. It is important that pediatric providers recognize common diagnostic features and are informed regarding recent advances in diagnosis and emerging treatment options for patients with these conditions.

Osteochondrosis encompasses a heterogenous group of pathologies affecting endochondral ossification in the growing child and adolescent. The cause of each disease is multifactorial, though many are often related to overuse injury, and may be epiphyseal, physeal, or apophyseal. Identification and treatment of this group of disorders is complex, thus this review aims to briefly describe common pathologies, their management, and highlight novel developments within the field.

Nonaccidental trauma remains a significant and underrecognized contributor to pediatric injury and mortality, reflecting both clinical and societal challenges in prevention and early identification. This review aims to synthesize the most recent literature on pediatric nonaccidental trauma (NAT) to better equip members of the healthcare team, particularly those in direct patient care, such as physicians, with the insight, contextual awareness, and ethical vigilance needed to identify, manage, and intervene in cases of child maltreatment. In doing so, it highlights the critical role of the healthcare team in not only treating injury but also protecting vulnerable children and addressing the broader implications of abuse.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a major contributor to morbidity and mortality in critically ill neonates. Before 2014, data were limited to small retrospective studies. In response, the 2013 NIH-sponsored workshop highlighted the need for collaborative, multidisciplinary research. The Assessment of Worldwide Acute Kidney Epidemiology in Neonates (AWAKEN) study was launched to fill this gap by defining AKI prevalence, risk factors, and outcomes, while also establishing infrastructure for future studies.

This review provides the most up to date information on diagnosing and treating atlantoaxial rotatory fixation (AARF). The condition can be confused with torticollis, but primary care physicians should have a high index of suspicion for AARF as timely noninvasive treatment facilitates excellent outcomes.

The Coleman block test is a key component of the foot and ankle physical examination in children and adults. This review describes the Coleman block test and summarizes its implications in surgical decision making as well as its limitations.