Bacteriophages, viruses that infect and replicate within bacterial hosts, offer versatile solutions across various fields, including biotechnology, medicine, and agriculture. This comprehensive review explores the intricate life cycle of bacteriophages, encompassing both lytic and lysogenic phases, and highlights their role in shaping microbial communities and influencing bacterial evolution. In Biotechnology, bacteriophages are instrumental tools in molecular biology research, drug discovery, and environmental remediation. In agriculture, phage-based biopesticides provide sustainable solutions for controlling bacterial pathogens in crops, livestock, and aquaculture. The robust, targeted solutions bacteriophages offer for addressing societal and environmental challenges necessitate continued research and innovation in phage-based technologies, particularly in understanding their influence on microbial communities.

Industrial activities have intensified heavy metal pollution, with chromium-particularly hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)]-recognized as one of the most toxic and carcinogenic pollutants. Heavy-metal-resistant bacteria are promising, eco-friendly, and cost-effective bioremediators that can efficiently remediate heavy metal pollution as an alternative to traditional techniques. This study investigates chromium-resistant bacteria isolated from activated sludge to evaluate their Cr(VI) detoxification mechanisms, as well as their chromium accumulation and reduction efficiency. The effects of environmental factors (pH, metal concentration, and contact time) on bioaccumulation and reduction were examined, and bacterial characteristics were analyzed using TEM, EDX, and FTIR. Three Bacillus cereus strains (A, B, and C) were isolated from activated sludge, with a maximum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 800 mg/L of Cr(VI). These isolates were evaluated for Cr(VI) detoxification. Strain A showed the highest Cr(VI) accumulation (48.8%) and overall detoxification efficiency (69.81%), while strain B exhibited the greatest reduction efficiency (24% within 30 min). Detoxification performance was strongly influenced by pH, with bioaccumulation being optimal at pH 7 and reduction favored under acidic conditions. FTIR and TEM analyses revealed strain-specific mechanisms, with strains A and B showing surface functional group interactions, while strain C employed enhanced intracellular and spore-associated sequestration.

Bloodstream infections (BSIs), caused by a diverse array of microbial pathogens, have emerged as key drivers of systemic inflammation that can compromise the integrity of blood-brain barrier (BBB) and trigger neuroinflammatory responses. This review highlights the pivotal role of BSIs in initiating neuroinflammation and accelerating the progression of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Literature review shows that pathogens involved in BSIs can disrupt the BBB, activate neuroglial cells, and release pro-inflammatory cytokines, ultimately causing neuronal injury and fueling chronic neuroinflammation. Clinically, survivors of BSIs, especially those who experience sepsis, face a heightened risk of long-term neurological decline. While antimicrobial treatments remain essential, advanced therapeutic options such as psychedelics, immunomodulators, and nano pharmacology, gene therapies offer promising strategies to mitigate neuroinflammation and protect brain function. The review emphasizes the urgency of early intervention, particularly in sepsis patients, to prevent the onset of chronic NDDs and preserve cognitive health. A deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying BSI-induced neuroinflammation will be critical in developing personalized treatments to reduce the neurological burden associated with these infections. Ultimately, this review aims to provide clinicians with insights into neuroprotective strategies that have shown promise in animal models of BSIs, with the potential to improve patient outcomes if validated in humans; further clinical studies are essential to translate these findings into effective therapies for long-term neurological consequences.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (n-TiO₂) have emerged as potent modulators of photosynthetic activity in cyanobacteria; however, their strain-specific physiological effects in Fremyella diplosiphon, a model cyanobacterium, remain unexplored. In this study, we investigated the impact of n-TiO on growth, pigment autofluorescence, photosynthetic capacity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and ATP synthase activity in F. diplosiphon strains B481-SD (overexpressed with the sterol desaturase gene) and B481-WT (wild type). Growth as a measure of optical density was maximal in B481-SD at 2.0 mg/L (0.67 ± 0.01) and in B481-WT at both 2.0 (0.55 ± 0.01) and 16 mg/L (0.52 ± 0.01) n-TiO on day 12. Pigment accumulation over 15 days revealed enhanced phycocyanin (1300 ± 2) and chlorophyll a (890 ± 5) levels in 2.0 mg/L n-TiO₂-treated B481-SD while no significant changes were observed in B481-WT. Photosynthetic efficiency (Fv/Fm) of B481-SD treated with 2.0 mg/L n-TiO₂ was significantly higher on days 6, 9, and 12. ROS quantification using the 2',7'dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate assay revealed significantly higher levels in B481-WT at 2.0 mg/L (260 ± 5), whereas B481-SD exhibited lower ROS levels at 2.0 (210 ± 2) and 16 mg/L (220 ± 4) n-TiO on day 15. Additionally, immunodetection analysis of ATP synthase revealed significantly enhanced expression in F. diplosiphon B481-SD treated with 0.5, 2.0, and 128 mg/L n-TiO₂ compared to the untreated control. Visualization of cell-n-TiO₂ interactions using field emission scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy revealed a strong absorption for titanium, with an atomic percentage of 0.32%. These findings demonstrate strain-specific responses of F. diplosiphon to n-TiO₂, paving the way for scale-up cultivation to enhance cyanobacteria-derived bioproducts.

Fluoride varnish application is used in many studies as a minimally invasive technique to prevent caries. Notably, oral microorganisms play a crucial role in the incidence and progression of tooth caries. However, the effect of fluoride varnish application on the dynamic microbial alterations that occur in dental plaques remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the impact of fluoride varnish application on the supragingival microbial composition and structure in preschoolers. We enrolled 27 preschoolers and collected supragingival plaque samples from the same sites at multiple time points: baseline (0 h, F0 group), 24 h (F1 group), 1 month (F2 group), 3 months (F3 group), and 6 months (F4 group). To unravel the changes in microbial composition and structure after fluoride varnish application, all specimens underwent high-throughput sequencing of the 16 S rRNA gene. The Shannon and Simpson indices showed no significant differences across groups (P > 0.05). Principal co-ordinates analysis (PCoA) revealed significant differences in microbial community structures across all time points (P < 0.001, R² = 0.44), with F0 and F1 groups showing similarity. Significant variations in bacterial composition were observed among eight strains, including Neisseria mucosa and Corynebacterium matruchotii (P < 0.05). This study found that Duraphat fluoride varnish application effectively modifies the composition and structural characteristics of supragingival plaque in preschoolers, enhancing anti-caries properties.

The aim of the study was isolation of best probiotic from woman's vagina and evaluate its anticancer properties and the toxicity of the secondary metabolites of the best isolated strain against the HT-29 cancer cells. Vaginal samples were collected from the cervix of healthy women in the north of Iran (Guilan). Molecular identification of the best lactobacillus isolate with probiotic properties was performed. Then, apoptotic and antiproliferative effects of the extract of the new isolate were evaluated compared to doxorubicin. Additionally, a docking study was conducted using USCF Chimera and AutoDock Vina software with 18 ligands and four target proteins, including caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9, and P53. Our results showed that the extract of Lactobacillus crispatus strain AE (GenBank: PX247516, IC50 of 1.54 mg/ml) induced apoptosis and inhibited cancer cell growth. In addition, the extract of Lactobacillus crispatus in combination with doxorubicin chemotherapeutic drug had anticancer properties more than the probiotic or doxorubicin alone. Overexpression of CASP-3, CASP-8, CASP-9 and P53 was found in combination therapy with the probiotic or doxorubicin in HT-29 cells by Q-RT-PCR Ligand No. 18 showed strong interactions with the target proteins 1JOX and 1YXQ, with affinities of -7.46 kcal/mol and - 9.622 kcal/mol, respectively. These results confirm a higher stability in docking interactions. Our analysis suggested that a new strain of Lactobacillus crispatus AE (GenBank: PX247516) from vigina as a probiotic can have anticancer effects. This is from the rare reports about this specie of genus Lactobacillus with strong anticancer activity against HT 29 cell lines. The best molecular docking results was detected in the secondary metabolite content encoded as 5,10-dideazatetrahydrofolic acid with an affinity of -9.622 kcal/mol and formed 10 hydrogen bonds with the target protein 1JXQ, resulting in the most stable docking.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are known to improve nutrient uptake and growth of perennial crops, including olive trees. In nursery systems, substrate type and microbial associations can strongly influence the establishment and quality of own-rooted plants. Evaluate the effects of different growing media and Rhizophagus intraradices inoculation on the growth and early vigor of own-rooted nursery trees of Olea europaea 'Koroneiki'. A completely randomized design was used with six treatments consisting of different substrate compositions - commercial substrates (Carolina Soil, Turfa Fértil, and Beifort S-10B) - combined with two fertilizer doses (1 and 3 g dm of controlled-release fertilizer), either with or without R. intraradices inoculation. Growth parameters assessed included plant height, stem diameter, leaf number, root volume and length, shoot and root fresh and dry biomass, shoot/root ratio, and Dickson Quality Index. Mycorrhizal colonization parameters (frequency and intensity) were also evaluated. Nursery tree height, root development, and biomass accumulation were significantly influenced by substrate composition and AMF inoculation (p < 0.05). Turfa Fértil and Beifort S-10B promoted greater height growth, while Carolina Soil enhanced root volume and length. AMF inoculation improved dry biomass accumulation, particularly in Turfa Fértil. The highest Dickson Quality Index values were observed in Carolina Soil and Beifort S-10B treatments, indicating greater structural robustness. Mycorrhizal colonization intensity was highest in Carolina Soil, suggesting favorable conditions for AMF symbiosis. Carolina Soil, with or without R. intraradices inoculation, and Beifort S-10B proved to be the most effective substrates for enhancing early vigor and structural quality in 'Koroneiki' olive nursery trees.

Bacteria mediated calcite solubilization along with plant growth promoting activity can be a sustainable approach for dolomite affected agricultural soil. This study focuses on isolation of calcite solubilizing, multi-metal tolerant, alkalinity enduring soil bacteria with plant growth promoting characteristics for possible reclamation of dolomite affected tea plantation soil. A potential strain (NJCT2a), molecularly characterized as Lysinibacillus macroides with 4.78 calcite solubilization index, was isolated and exhibited tolerance against copper, zinc and lead at 10 mg/ml while 15 mg/ml and 5 mg/ml against iron and aluminium respectively. This studied strain can thrive under calcium hydroxide (0.5%-6%) and pH (5 to 8) stress. Also, displayed resistance against antibiotics, including streptomycin, colistin, cefuroxime, methicillin and fosfomycin. In vitro plant growth promoting study with NJCT2a showed positive results for production of ammonia, HCN, indole acetic acid, phosphate solubilization and negative for siderophore production. The superiority of the strain was proved by its germination promoting ability (100%) and vigor index (850) for Vigna radiata seeds. Significant increases in plant height, root length, leaf length and biomass were noted for Phaseolus vulgaris and Vigna radiata on its soil application, with similar effects on increases in chlorophyll content. Overall findings displayed the potentiality of this strain may be used as a bioinoculant in dolomite affected tea gardens for sustainable agriculture.

Proteus mirabilis is a foodborne and environmental pathogen causing catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs) with antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and virulence. As the potential of Indian strains remains underexplored, whole-genome sequence (WGS) data of 18 strains were analyzed for AMR, virulence, and genetic relatedness. The disc diffusion method assessed phenotypic AMR. Genomic DNA sequencing was performed on Illumina MiSeq platform, followed by quality control, read assembly, gap closure, and annotation using software tools. Various tools were used to predict antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs), resistome, virulence, mobile genetic elements (MGEs), pathogenicity, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and plasmids. Phylogenetic analysis based on SNPs was performed using maximum likelihood (ML) and neighbor-joining (NJ) methods. All isolates showed resistance to tetracycline but were sensitive to gentamicin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, and streptomycin. Genome sizes ranged from 3,824 to 4,296 kb (average 3691.6 ± 164.3) and 5-26 ARGs per isolate. Common intrinsic resistance genes, including tetJ, tet(D), K. pneumoniae KpnF, and amphenicol resistance genes (cat and catA4) were present in all but one isolate. Predominant ARGs were linked to tetracycline, quinolone, cephalosporin, cephamycin, penam, quaternary ammonium compounds, and glycopeptide groups present in MGEs. Isolates contained numerous virulence genes (n = 4785) across 10 categories. The average SNP count was 4114.27 ± 3216.91, with four isolates showing no SNPs. Phylogenetic analysis revealed diversity (D= -1.6910, P = 0.0047) among 86 reference strains. Ongoing monitoring through WGS analysis is essential for understanding and managing infections caused by this pathogen.

The emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a critical One Health problem, with wildlife increasingly threatened. While captive giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) have been studied for microbiota composition and AMR, wild-living individuals have not yet been investigated. Therefore, this study investigated the Gram-negative aerobic microbiota colonizing 21 wild M. tridactyla individuals and evaluated the phenotypic and genotypic AMR profiles of enterobacteria. Accordingly, 67 enterobacteria and non-fermenting Gram-negative bacilli were identified, with Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas sp., and Achromobacter sp. being observed in all swab types (oral, ocular, and rectal). Among 12 enterobacteria, three E. coli strains were identified as resistant to antimicrobials, with the TMND-VV-15 strain, isolated from a peri-urban specimen, exhibiting multidrug resistance and producing an extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL). Genome sequencing of the TMND-VV-15 strain revealed AMR determinants, including horizontally acquired genes and chromosomal point mutations associated with resistance. The bla gene was harbored in a complex class 1 integron located on its chromosome. Potential virulence genes mainly related to adhesion, invasion, immune evasion, and host cell damage were found. Strain TMND-VV-15 belonged to the sequence type (ST) 1266 and sublineage E-ST1266-H108. Comparative genomic analysis revealed that E-ST1266-H108 strains, including those harboring ESBL genes and classified as putative enteropathogenic E. coli, have been circulating in many countries, but not in Brazil. These findings suggest that the CTX-M-2-producing E. coli strain may be driven by anthropogenic pressures in the area studied. Therefore, continuous microbiological monitoring in free-ranging populations remains necessary to better understand the dynamics of AMR dissemination to the wildlife health framework.

The Clp protease regulates antibiotic resistance, biofilm formation, stress response, and virulence in microorganisms through a post-transcriptional mechanism. Substrate recognition by the ClpS subunit is essential for the target protein degradation. However, the function of ClpS in Riemerella anatipestifer (R. anatipestifer) remains unclear. In this study, a clpS gene (B739_1609) in-frame deletion strain of R. anatipestifer was constructed using homologous recombination. The ΔclpS gene mutant exhibited no influence on the growth rate and shape of R. anatipestifer. However, the survival rate was significantly lower than that of the parent strain under different conditions, including 42 °C, hydrogen peroxide (10 mM), hydrochloric acid (20 mM), and iron deficiency (10 mM 2'2-dipyridyl). Moreover, R. anatipestifer can activate transcription of the clpS under heat and oxidative stress. The ΔclpS mutant strain exhibited defects in adhesion and invasion of RAW264.7 cells, as well as reduced pathogenicity in ducklings. Additionally, RNA-seq analysis revealed significant changes in the expression of 77 genes in the ΔclpS mutant strain, with 63 genes upregulated and 14 genes downregulated. The differentially expressed genes were primarily clustered in the following metabolic pathways: Global and Overview Maps, Energy Metabolism, Carbohydrate Metabolism, Metabolism of Cofactors and Vitamins, Glycan Biosynthesis and Metabolism, and Nucleotide Metabolism. These results demonstrate that clpS is involved in the stress response and virulence of R. anatipestifer. Moreover, these results can serve as a reference for understanding the molecular pathogenic mechanisms of R. anatipestifer.

Since foodborne bacterial illnesses are a serious problem, researchers are searching for substitutes that can prevent harmful bacteria and enhance probiotics. This study aims to investigate whether omega-3 fatty acids (ω3FAs) and encapsulated ω3FAs possess antibacterial properties against Escherichia coli O157 and Bacillus toyonensis PS-NRD5. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and time-kill kinetic assays were conducted to evaluate the antibacterial activity in a dose-dependent manner. Enzymatic assays were analysed to understand mechanism of bacterial eradication, with a focus on oxidative stress. Membrane disruption experiments were performed, and MALDI-TOF MS was utilized to analyse cleavage in lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan extracted from E. coli and B. toyonensis, respectively. ω3FAs were highly effective in rupturing bacterial membranes due to enzymatic and oxidative stress, ultimately causing bacterial death after 120 min of treatment. Both bacterial strains showed changes in membrane permeability. E. coli exhibited changes in the lipid A fragments of lipopolysaccharides, whereas B. toyonensis peptidoglycan remained unchanged. As an antibacterial agent, ω3FAs have the potential to control both E. coli and B. toyonensis. This research sheds light on the potential use of ω3FAs and Enω3FAs in public health and food safety.

Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent programmed cell death linked to intensified lipid peroxidation reactions, ultimately causing damage to cellular structures such as membranes. It is associated with various viral infections, including Enterovirus 71 (EV71), a major cause of severe hand, foot, and mouth disease with potential neurological complications. However, the role of ferroptosis in EV71 infection is not fully understood. In this study, we downloaded a microarray dataset of EV71-infected samples (GSE71673) from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and retrieved ferroptosis-related genes (FRGs) from FerrDB. Compared to the control group, we identified 69 differentially expressed ferroptosis-related genes (FR-DEGs) that were differentially expressed in the EV71-infected cell samples compared with the control samples. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses, along with protein‒protein interaction (PPI) network analysis, revealed associations with pathways related to miRNA transcription, protein binding, and cancer. Eight hub genes were identified, with five validated in EV71-infected U87 cells. In the regulatory network, we identified six transcription factors (TFAP2A, STAT3, SP1, EGR1, MAX, and AR) and three microRNAs (hsa-miR-1, hsa-miR-20a, and hsa-miR-545) that play key regulatory roles in the expression of hub genes. In summary, the 5 validated FR-DEGs (IL-6, JUN, CXCL8, FGF2, and TGFB1), six transcription factors and the three microRNAs that regulate hub gene expression. In addition, EV71 infection reduces cellular GSH and GPX4 expression, promotes ROS production, and decreases cell viability. These findings reveal significant transcriptional reprogramming of ferroptosis-associated genes during EV71 infection, highlighting a potential role for this pathway that requires direct experimental validation.

Efflux pumps are one of the main mechanisms used by bacteria for antimicrobial resistance. These protein structures are capable of extruding antibiotics and reducing their intracellular concentrations to non-toxic levels for the bacterial cell. Thus, due to the absence of clinically approved products capable of acting as efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs), this study aimed to investigate the potential of the sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene to act as an EPI of the NorA pump present in Staphylococcus aureus strains, through in vitro, in vivo, and in silico approaches. For this purpose, in in vitro assays, the terpene was combined at a sub-inhibitory concentration with norfloxacin or ethidium bromide. In in vivo tests using the Zebrafish model, the animals were intramuscularly infected and orally treated with the terpene combined with norfloxacin. Additionally, molecular docking was performed with the NorA protein to predict ligand interactions, as well as ADME/Tox predictions. Overall, the molecular docking assays revealed that β-caryophyllene shows good affinity for the active site of the NorA protein, promoting hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds with key residues such as PHE86. This was supported by in vitro assays, in which the compound was able to reduce the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of norfloxacin when combined with it. This activity was also corroborated in vivo, where the association between β-caryophyllene and norfloxacin significantly reduced the number of colony-forming units (CFUs) in infected muscle tissues. ADMET property predictions demonstrated good intestinal absorption, absence of interaction with cytochrome P450 enzymes, and low hepatic toxicity; however, potential immunotoxicity and adverse effects on the blood-brain barrier (BBB) were observed. Therefore, β-caryophyllene emerged as a promising candidate for inhibiting the NorA efflux pump.

To compare the soil and fish intestinal bacterial communities between traditional (TRF) and modern (MRF) rice-fish co-culture system, examining the impact of feed supplementation. High-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing was used to assess structure, diversity, composition, and functional predictions in soil and intestinal communities between TRF and MRF systems in Qingtian, Zhejiang Province, China. Key findings revealed that both soil and fish intestinal bacterial communities in the MRF system exhibited higher diversity and richness than those in the TRF. In soil, Pseudomonadota dominated both systems. MRF enriched Bacillota, whereas TRF enriched oligotrophy-linked Acidobacteriota and Chloroflexota. In intestine, TRF was Fusobacteriota-centered with Cetobacterium and Aeromonas dominance. While MRF was more even, with higher Bacillota, Actinomycetota, Clostridium and Mycobacterium. Which consistent with adaptation to formulated feeds. Rice yields remained unchanged, suggesting microbial buffering of nutrient input. Functional prediction (COG) indicated that MRF microbiota were enriched in carbohydrate metabolism and signal transduction, whereas TRF favored biosynthetic pathways. These findings offer insights for sustainable rice-fish co-culture system.

Fungal cell wall is essential in orchestrating fungal morphogenesis and sensing environmental stimuli. Its dynamic reconstruction involves glycoside hydrolases, particularly β-1,6-glucanase, which is crucial for synthesis of β-1,6-glucan. This glucan functions as a fundamental structural element within the fungal cell wall, covalently linking mannoproteins into the β-1,3-glucan-chitin network. Previously, a highly hydrolytically active β-1,6-glucanase, MoGlu16, was identified in Magnaporthe oryzae. However, its impacts on the pathogenicity of the blast fungus remain unexplored. In this study, to elucidate the detailed biological function of this protein, we generated the ΔMoglu16 mutant strain by knocking out the MoGLU16 gene encoding the β-1,6-glucanase via homologous recombination. Compared to the wild-type strain Guy11, ΔMoglu16 mutant exhibited a significantly slower vegetative growth rate, with a reduction of approximately 52% on MM medium. Its cell wall structure was altered, characterized by a 13.7% decrease in β-1,6-glucan content and a 12.2% increase in chitin. Furthermore, the mutant displayed increased sensitivity to cell wall-disturbing agents. In addition, the deletion of MoGLU16 exerted a minor influence on the early developmental stages of conidia, but severely compromised M. oryzae infection and pathogenicity. These findings suggested that MoGlu16 was essential for mycelial growth and pathogenicity of M. oryzae, thereby providing a crucial theoretical basis for the development of novel fungicides targeting β-1,6-glucan.

This is the first study to examine how earthworm abundance influences the composition, interactions of co-occurrence network, and diversity of soil bacterial and fungal community. In a controlled greenhouse experiment involving the addition of endo-anecic earthworms (Metaphire guillelmi L.) at different abundances, the bacterial and fungal communities were investigated under planting wheat potting greenhouse experiment for 24 weeks, employing Illumina sequencing and high-throughput quantitative PCR techniques. We found that earthworm addition, particularly at higher abundances, increased total carbon (TC), soil organic carbon (SOC) and nitrate nitrogen (NO-N), as well as bacterial and fungal species richness. High-abundance treatments enhaned the Chao index for both the bacterial and fungal communities, and the Shannon diversity index of the fungal community. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) indicated that earthworm abundance significantly altered microbial community composition. Redundancy Analysis (RDA) confirmed that NO-N were the most influential factors shaping microbial structure, which were affected by earthworm feeding and burrowing activity. At low earthworm abundances, microbial species tended to exclude each other, whereas higher abundances promoted positive species interactions. Additionally, earthworm presence strengthened the co-occurrence network between bacteria and fungi. These results emphasize earthworms as prominent ecological engineers, whose density not only increases soil microbial richness, promotes beneficial microbial associations, and reorganizes soil microbial networks but also enhances nutrient cycling and soil fertility, highlighting new insights into the ecological function of earthworms and their potential uses in sustainable soil management.

By protecting the cells against oxidative and osmotic stress, glutathione (GSH) plays particularly important roles in bacteria. Glutathione is synthesized through two ATP-dependent reactions catalyzed by glutamate-cysteine ligase (Gcl) and glutathione synthetase (Gs). In addition, glutathione reductase (Gr) catalyzes the reduction of glutathione disulfide to its sulfhydryl form, GSH. In Myxococcus xanthus cells, the activities of Gcl, Gs, and Gr were found to be the highest during the stationary phase of growth and declined during starvation-induced development. In growth medium, compared with the wild-type strain, M. xanthus gcl mutant cells were characterized by a longer generation time and lower maximum cell density. During growth, the gcl mutant produced a browning substance in nutrient medium and the culture fluid inhibited horseradish peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase activities. In HO-supplemented medium, the gcl mutant was characterized by a marked retardation of growth and a longer generation time than the wild-type strain. Furthermore, the gcl mutant formed spores 2 days later than the wild-type strain, and at 11 days post-inoculation onto starvation medium, the yield of viable spores was approximately 1% that of the wild-type strain. These findings indicate that GSH plays an important role in the growth, adaptation to oxidative stress, and starvation-induced development of M. xanthus.

Emerging evidence suggests that gut microbiota dysbiosis is associated with bone metabolism disorders, including osteopenia (ON) and osteoporosis (OP). However, multi-cohort integrated and association analyses remain underexplored. We conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of gut microbiota data from six public cohorts, encompassing 341 samples from normal bone density controls (NC), ON, and OP patients. We found neither osteopenia nor osteoporosis patients exhibited significant differences in gut microbial alpha diversity compared to healthy controls. However, Bray-Curtis distance analysis revealed significant beta-diversity differences among groups. We employed a leave-one-cohort-out approach to develop the classification models to link gut microbiota and disease traits. Our analysis revealed that the models achieved accuracies of 72.5-75.6% in classifying ON across two independent cohorts. Furthermore, for osteoporosis OP classification, the models demonstrated accuracies of 70.1%, 71.2%, 80.1%, and 76.6% across four validation cohorts. Collectively, our study identifies distinct gut microbiota signatures in OP/ON, highlighting the importance of several potential SCFAs-producing bacteria.