Rotavirus B (RVB) is among the enteric pathogens that can cause gastroenteritis in humans and various animals. However, severe diarrhea in newborn piglets has rarely been reported to be linked to porcine RVB (PoRVB). From 2023 to 2024, outbreaks of newborn piglet diarrhea with 20%-50% morbidity and 4%-10% mortality occurred in three herds situated in Anhui, Liaoning, and Jilin provinces of China. Notably, all samples from these herds tested negative for porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV), PoRVA and transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV). To identify the causative pathogens of the severe diarrhea in newborn piglets, high-throughput sequencing (HTS) was performed on pooled and individual samples collected from each farm. The results revealed that there were 783,546-1,237,231 mammalian virus reads per pooled sample, with PoRVB being the overwhelmingly dominant virus. A high prevalence of PoRVB (83.3%-100%) was detected in all the affected farms, indicating the association between PoRVB strains and the outbreak of severe piglet diarrhea in the sampled farms. Analysis of assembled whole genomes from individual samples revealed that the PoRVB strains AHLW1/2023, JLCG2/2024, and LNDC5/2024 exhibited 81.8%-95.6% nucleotide and 88.9%-99.0% amino acid sequence identities of all 11 gene segments when compared to the most similar reference PoRVB strains. The genotype constellation of AHLW1/2023 was assigned to G34-P[4]-I13-R4-C4-M7-A8-N10-T4-E4-H7, which differs from JLCG2/2024 by one genotype (R7) and from LNDC5/2024 by three genotypes (G16, R7, and M4). This study demonstrated that PoRVB is the primary etiological agent responsible for severe diarrheal outbreaks in newborn piglets. It also highlights the importance of conducting continuous surveillance to effectively control PoRVB infections.

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) causes an acute, highly contagious and immunosuppressive disease in 3-5-week-old chicken, called infectious bursal disease (IBD). Current vaccines targeting the hypervariable VP2 gene fail to provide cross-protection against different IBDV strains, necessitating the development of novel diagnostic and preventive strategies that explore other candidate genes to ensure immune efficacy. Here, VP3, a conserved nucleocapsid protein of IBDV, was selected for further analysis. A prokaryotic expression vector, pET-32a-IBDV-VP3, was constructed, followed by expression and purification of the recombinant protein. Following the intraperitoneal injection of recombinant proteins into the mice, eight monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) were identified by hybridoma cell fusion, clone purification, and immunological assays. Among the mAbs, mAb 19D8 effectively neutralized IBDV infection during viral attachment and penetration. Antigenic epitopes of mAb 19D8 were identified using alanine-scanning mutagenesis. Our results showed that four amino acids, F20, K21, T23, and E25, located on an α-helix of the VP3, were the key amino acids recognized by 19D8. Homologous and structural analyses revealed that these sites were highly conserved across different IBDV strains from diverse regions. These findings provide crucial insights into the antigenicity of VP3 and underscore the potential of VP3 as a target for the development of broad-spectrum diagnostic tools and cross-protection vaccines against IBDV.

African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most threatening animal diseases for the global swine industry. Due to the high risk of ASF virus (ASFv) transmission via infected suid meat and derived products, Italy adopted specific risk mitigation measures during 2023 and 2024. Two targeted programs were established to implement these measures: one addressing the illegal domestic trade of wild boar meat and meat products and the second focusing on irregularities in food imports. In both programs, products with traceability irregularity and improper or missing labels were seized. ASFv detection by real-time PCR was conducted on all suid meat and derived products originating from illegal national trade, as well as on illegally imported products in which suid DNA was detected. While smuggled local products did not show any ASFv contamination, a large proportion of the illegally imported products tested positive for ASFv by real-time PCR. However, experimental infection tests conducted both in vitro and in vivo using samples that tested positive by real-time PCR, yielded negative results indicating that the virus was inactivated. These programs highlighted the existence of an illegal network responsible for smuggling suid meat and derived products into Italy. Although in vivo and in vitro testing excluded the presence of infectious virus in illegally imported products, the potential risk of transboundary transmission through illegal importation remains a significant concern, necessitating ongoing surveillance and stringent biosecurity measures.

African swine fever (ASF) is a highly lethal disease affecting domestic pigs and wild boars, caused by the ASF virus (ASFV), which has rapidly spread across Asia in recent years. In this region, most reported ASF cases involve domestic pigs, while cases in wild boars remain notably lower except in a few countries. However, factors such as the high population of wild boars, limited wildlife surveillance, and inadequate farm biosecurity suggest that the prevalence and transmission of ASFV between these hosts may be underestimated. Therefore, we used a simplified multicriteria approach (SMCA) to identify vulnerable areas (VAs) for ASFV infection and validated the resulting VA maps with chi-square tests using reported ASF cases. The spatial SMCA revealed that VAs for ASFV infection in domestic pigs are concentrated in eastern China, while high-risk zones for ASFV infection in wild boars span Russia, eastern China, and Southeast Asia. Sensitity analysis showed that the variables that most influenced the risk of ASFV infection in domestic pigs and wild boars were anthropogenic factors and distribution of wild boars, respectively. Additionally, we predicted areas with significant transmission potential between domestic pigs and wild boars. High-risk regions for interspecies transmission include eastern China, southwestern Korea, and southern Japan. This study offers a standardized method to assess ASFV infection risk across Asia by integrating environmental and anthropogenic factors rather than relying solely on reported outbreaks. The findings highlight potential high-risk regions, including those without detected outbreaks, to improve surveillance and early detection strategies.

Tibet orbivirus (TIBOV) is an orbivirus transmitted by mosquitoes and , despite specific neutralizing antibodies being detected in pigs, but the molecular genetic characteristics of TIBOV strains in infected pigs are completely uncharted, and their pathogenicity in piglets is poorly elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the genetic characteristics of TIBOV in infected pigs and evaluate the pathogenicity of TIBOV in weaned piglets. Through viral metagenomic sequencing, seven segments (VP1-VP4, VP6, NS1, and NS2) of TIBOV were obtained from swine tissues, and the sequences showed high identity with TIBOVs isolated from , mosquitos, and cattle. After infection with TIBOV, the body temperature, appetite, and behavior of the piglets were normal, whereas hemorrhage nodes were observed on the hooves of all piglets and on the abdominal skin of one pig. Viremia was first detected at 2 days postinfection (dpi), peaked at 6 dpi, and remained high until 21 dpi. The virus was distributed in multiple organs, and the highest viral load and strongest viral nucleic acid signals were observed in the spleen. The most severe lesion was observed in the spleen with white pulp atrophy, a decreased number of lymphocytes, and widened septa of the medullary cord, indicating that the spleen was the most important target organ of TIBOV infection. The levels of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-18, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon (IFN)-α, and IFN-λ3 in peripheral blood lymphocytes decreased significantly from 2 to 6 dpi, and interferon-stimulated gene-15 () and IFN regulatory factor 7 () expression levels declined significantly from 2 to 9 dpi, suggesting that the host immune response was inhibited within 6 dpi. Our findings confirmed that TIBOV elicited long-term viremia with mild clinical symptoms in piglets, the spleen was the target organ of TIBOV proliferation, and the host immune response may be slightly inhibited in the early stage of viral infection.

Ethiopia faces significant economic losses from foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Laboratory diagnostic tools such as antigen detection ELISA (Ag-ELISA), reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and sequencing provide important information that underpin control initiatives. In this study, 411 samples (275 epithelial tissues, 12 oropharyngeal probang cup scrapings and fluids, 122 swab samples, and two whole blood) collected from cattle with clinical signs of FMD were tested to determine serotype diversity of the FMD viruses (FMDVs) present in Ethiopia during a 5-year period (2019-2023). RT-PCR testing showed that most samples, 81.1% (172/212) were positive for FMDV genome while 48.2% (198/411) of the samples were positive for FMDV antigen using ELISA, identifying serotypes O (10.9%), A (7.3%), Southern African Territories (SAT) 1 (1.7%), and SAT 2 (19.5%). Furthermore, evidence for mixed serotype infection was observed for 36 samples using the Ag-ELISA. Viral protein (VP) 1 sequencing for FMDV was performed on 94 samples, confirming the presence of three FMDV serotypes (O, A, and SAT 2). There was no molecular sequence evidence for outbreaks due to SAT 1 during this period, suggesting that the Ag-ELISA results for this serotype may have been false positives. Together with the Ag-ELISA data, the sequences highlighted a dramatic increase in the dominance of serotype SAT 2 viruses during the period of the study, associated with outbreaks due to the emerging SAT2/XIV topotype after a period of absence of more than 30 years. These data highlight Ethiopia's dynamic FMD landscape, informing national and regional control. These findings are crucial for understanding FMDV in Ethiopia and vaccine selection, although more geographically broad and sequencing-intensive studies may be needed to define a more comprehensive understanding of the national disease epidemiology.

Swine enteric coronaviruses (SeCoVs) cause acute enteritis and high mortality in neonatal piglets, posing a significant threat to the swine industry. Injectable vaccines often fail to induce effective mucosal immunity, and their efficacy is further compromised by maternally derived antibodies. Oral and intranasal mucosal vaccines offer promising alternatives, enabling localized and durable protection. This review summarizes recent advances in mucosal vaccines against SeCoVs, focusing on antigen delivery platforms and mucosal immune activation. Novel antigen delivery platforms, including nanoparticles (NPs), hydrogels, engineered probiotics, recombinant viral vectors, and eukaryotic expression systems, have improved antigen stability and facilitated transport across the epithelium to mucosal inductive sites. Moreover, targeting strategies that focus on microfold cells (M cells) and dendritic cells (DCs) enhance antigen uptake and presentation. These delivery systems promote mucosal immune activation by inducing secretory IgA (sIgA), maintaining Th1/Th2 balance, and promoting the generation of T and B cells. In addition, the incorporation of adjuvants further strengthens these responses, resulting in more robust and durable protection. By synergistically integrating advanced mucosal vaccine delivery systems with rational adjuvant strategies, this review provides theoretical and practical perspectives for the development of safe, effective, and broadly protective mucosal vaccines targeting SeCoVs infections.

Influenza A virus (IAV) can infect a wide range of hosts, including wild and domestic pigs. Swine play an important role in influenza evolution and epidemiology due to their ability to get infected with both avian and human influenza viruses, potentially leading to reassorted virus variants. Interactions at the wild-domestic swine interface have been documented on multiple occasions, raising concern about pathogen transmission and the emergence of novel influenza strains. This study investigates the occurrence and subtypes of IAV infecting invasive wild pigs in Alberta, Canada. A total of 267 wild pigs were captured between 2021-2024. Exposure to IAV was initially detected by cELISA, with further confirmation of exposure to the H5Nx virus by hemagglutination inhibition (HI) and virus neutralization (VN) assays. Although no IAV genetic material was detected by qPCR, the seropositive samples by cELISA (4.17%; 5/120) coincided with the 2022-2024 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAI) H5N1 epizootic in Alberta, which involved outbreaks in wild species and domestic birds. These findings, combined with the epidemiological context, suggest interspecies transmission of HPAI H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b to wild pigs. These results highlight the potential role of wild pigs as a new host in Canada and emphasize the need for continued surveillance of IAV in wild pig populations to assess the risk of spillover events at the wildlife, livestock, and human interfaces.

Pseudorabies virus (PRV), a significant pathogen that infects various animals, including pigs, encodes multiple proteins that participate in host-pathogen interactions. This study investigates the mechanisms by which PRV evades host immune responses, with a particular focus on the role of the UL41 protein and its interactions with host factors. We found that PRV infection modulates the interferon (IFN) signaling pathway, suppressing the expression of IFN-β and downstream antiviral factors while upregulating IFN-α. However, the direct role of UL41 in IFN-α upregulation remains to be elucidated. The PRV UL41 protein was shown to directly target the JAK/STAT pathway, binding to specific motifs, such as the conserved sequences KUUUCY and CSDGGA, in the untranslated region (UTR) of key mRNAs and degrading them, thereby inhibiting IFN-I signal transduction. Simultaneously, the UL41 can interact with host proteins, such as poly(A) binding protein (PABPC1) and host restriction factor tripartite motif protein 21 (TRIM21). Additionally, we discovered an antagonistic relationship between PRV UL41 and TRIM21. TRIM21, acting as an E3 ubiquitin ligase, binds to UL41 through its SPRY/PRY domain and mediates the degradation of the protein via the K48-ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. This interaction modulates the JAK/STAT pathway, with TRIM21 counteracting the inhibitory effect of UL41. In addition, the residue F78 within PRV UL41 is crucial for modulating mRNA and protein binding and ribonuclease (RNase) function, facilitating interactions with target proteins such as PABPC1 and TRIM21, and inhibiting the JAK/STAT pathway. These findings enhance our understanding of PRV pathogenesis and provide potential targets for developing novel antiviral strategies.

Understanding the ecological niches and quantifying the disease burden of species is essential for efficient surveillance and control strategies. Through a systematic review of global distributions, we document all 250 identified species across 73 vector species, 224 animals, and humans. infected the broadest range of tick species, while exhibited the highest prevalence in wildlife. Among 26 848 recorded human cases involving 10 species, >90% were attributed to and . Using three machine learning algorithms, we evaluated ecological and vector-associated determinants governing the distributions of six predominant species. Our models predict to have the most extensive geographic range. Critically, habitat suitability index (HSI) of vector ticks emerged as the primary driver of transmission risk. Enhanced awareness, diagnostic capacity, and surveillance are imperative in identified high-risk regions.

High pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) is an acute infectious disease of poultry and wild birds that has been occurring worldwide and has been controlled in many countries by culling birds on farms with disease outbreaks. We compared the gross lesions observed in influenza A (H5Nx) virus-positive cases of chickens and ducks in South Korea between 2023 and 2025. A total of 49 outbreaks were identified, comprising 34 cases in chickens and 15 cases in ducks, with both H5N1 and H5N6 subtypes detected. The lesions observed most frequently in chickens included splenomegaly and splenic necrosis, followed by tracheal congestion and pancreatic necrosis. In ducks, tracheal congestion was the most common lesion, followed by pancreatic necrosis and splenomegaly; hemorrhage and/or necrosis were also observed in the liver, ovarian follicles, heart, and lungs. Gross lesions in poultry caused by the H5N1 virus during the 2024-2025 season were observed more frequently than those associated with H5N6 virus in 2023. HPAI cases were characterized by ≥2 HPAI-typical lesions, such as pancreatic necrosis, splenic necrosis, and ovarian follicular hemorrhage, or the presence of HPAI-associated lesions in ≥3 different organs, even in the absence of HPAI-typical lesions. Assessing gross lesions in HPAI cases is crucial for guiding immediate disease control measures, including imposing movement restrictions on suspected farms, while awaiting confirmation by genetic testing and sequencing.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is an arthropod-borne virus that has caused several major outbreaks around the world and is becoming increasingly harmful. Although significant progress has been made in understanding the global epidemiology and transmission of CHIKV, a systematic description of the transmission history of its three genotypes is still lacking. To address this gap, this study integrates multiple bioinformatics approaches to explore their origin, evolution, and transmission dynamics. We analyzed publicly available CHIKV genomes from NCBI to elucidate the genetic evolution and transmission potential of these genotypes. Phylogeographic and molecular evolutionary analyses showed that the West African (WA) genotype originated in Nigeria and spread exclusively within Africa; the Eastern/Central/South African (ECSA) genotype originated in Tanzania and spread globally; and the Asian genotype originated in Thailand, spread throughout Asia, Oceania, and the Americas, exhibiting the highest evolutionary rate among the three genotypes. We also identified 15 positively selected sites and 10 nonconservative mutation sites with altered hydrophobicity across CHIKV proteins, all of which need further investigation into their effects on viral protein function. The data from this study are important for understanding the transmission history of the three genotypes of CHIKV, providing new targets for CHIKV antiviral therapy and ideas for developing effective prevention and control measures in the future.

Mastitis is one of the biggest problems and an economic burden facing the dairy industry with a strong negative impact on animal welfare, productivity, and food safety. This study conducted a systematic investigation and analysis of the epidemiological characteristics of mastitis in selected regions of China (significant region for raw milk production). By collecting an extensive number of milk samples from clinical mastitis cases and utilizing methodologies such as bacterial isolation, genomic DNA extraction, and pathogen identification, the research elucidated the distribution patterns and trends of pathogenic bacteria responsible for mastitis across various regions and seasons. A total of 7177 milk samples were analyzed, identifying pathogenic bacteria in 3720 samples, which corresponds to a detection rate of 51.83%. Sixteen species of pathogenic bacteria were identified, with , coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS), and () being the predominant pathogens, representing 21.33%, 20.63%, and 18.72%, respectively. The study revealed significant seasonal and regional variations in the prevalence of pathogenic bacteria associated with mastitis. Detection rates of these bacteria were significantly higher in samples collected from May to September compared to other months, with September showing the highest detection rate at 85.94%. Furthermore, the southern region of China demonstrated the highest detection rate of pathogenic bacteria, with a prevalence of 94.98%. This study explored the pathogenicity and antimicrobial resistance profiles of the predominant bacterial strains, and proposed targeted prevention and control strategies based on these insights. The overarching aim is to provide a scientific basis for the effective management of mastitis, thereby alleviating the economic impact on the dairy farming industry.

As a local breed adapted to the extreme environment of the Tibetan Plateau, Tibetan pigs have not yet been systematically characterized in terms of their gut viral communities. In this study, we applied viral metagenomics to sequence fecal samples from 191 Tibetan pigs (including both healthy and diarrheal individuals) across four farms in Nyingchi, Tibet, aiming to reveal the diversity, composition, and distribution of gut viral communities in Tibetan pigs living at high altitudes. A total of nearly 120 million high-quality viral sequence reads were obtained, which were annotated into 16 viral families. The viral community was predominantly dominated by Microviridae, but its composition varied across different farms and health statuses. Phylogenetic analysis identified numerous virus sequences associated with pigs, including RNA viruses (such as Astroviridae ( = 7), Caliciviridae ( = 6), Picornaviridae ( = 15), etc.) and DNA viruses (such as Circoviridae ( = 3), Genomoviridae ( = 4), Smacoviridae ( = 41), Parvoviridae ( = 11), etc.). Notably, the study found multiple viral sequences exhibiting genetic differences from known strains, suggesting the potential presence of novel viruses or variants. For instance, a papain-like protease (PLP) insertion sequence, identified to have high sequence identity with (ToV), was found in six (EV-G) strains, indicating a cross-family genetic recombination event. This study systematically outlines the viral metagenomic profile of gut viral communities in Tibetan pigs at high altitudes, revealing their unique viral diversity and complex community structure. The results suggest that the gut viral community of Tibetan pigs consists of host-associated viruses, bacteriophages, and potentially viruses originating from the environment or diet, with its composition influenced by farming conditions and host health status. These findings provide an important data foundation for understanding the interactions between viruses, hosts, and the environment in unique ecological settings and offer new insights into the health management and virology research of Tibetan pigs.

Corriparta virus (CORV), an arbovirus within the genus, exhibits a broad vertebrate host range but limited pathogenicity. In this study, we report the first isolation and characterization of a novel orbivirus genetically related to CORV, temporarily designed as novel duck orbivirus (NDORV), from Beijing ducks in Henan province, China, in 2024. Genomic characterization revealed that NDORV possesses a 10-segment double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genome, consistent with the structural hallmarks of the genus, with a high genetic similarity to Parry's Lagoon virus (PLV) and CORV. To evaluate its pathogenicity, specific pathogen-free (SPF) ducks were experimentally inoculated with NDORV. Gross pathological examination revealed splenomegaly and blood stasis as primary lesions, with no mortality observed. Histopathological analysis identified tissue damage in the spleen, lungs, heart, liver, and kidneys. The highest viral loads were observed in the spleen and lungs, peaking at 3 days postinoculation (dpi). This study provides the first comprehensive characterization of a novel orbivirus genetically akin to CORV isolated from ducks in China. These findings highlight the potential prevalence of NDORV in domestic duck populations and underscore the urgency of enhanced surveillance and research on CORV-related arboviruses.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), a major cause of acute respiratory infections (ARIs) globally, poses a significant threat, especially to vulnerable populations. However, the spatial transmission dynamics of RSV strains, including the influence of environmental and socioeconomic factors, remain inadequately understood. This study applied genetic sequences and phylogenetic methods to quantify evolutionary and spatial dispersal dynamics of RSV subgroup A (RSVA) across China from 2011 to 2019. We assessed viral population trends, mapped interprovincial transmission patterns, and evaluated the influence of meteorological and socioeconomic factors on viral spread. Our results revealed cyclical fluctuations in effective population size every 3-5 years, and a predominant southward spread driven by interprovincial transmission networks. We found that higher winter relative humidity (RH), urbanization rate, and human mobility promoted viral spread, while higher winter temperature and elevated urban population density appeared to inhibit it. These findings provide crucial insights into RSVA dispersal in China, underscoring the importance of regional surveillance networks and targeted interventions to curb cross-regional spread, and offer a valuable framework to inform RSV vaccine rollout strategies and guide resource allocation in high-risk areas.

Porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) is an emerging enteric pathogen that causes substantial economic losses in the global swine industry. Although neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) are a key indicator of vaccine efficacy, their diagnostic concordance with IgG/IgA levels measured by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (iELISAs) targeting major structural proteins has not been systematically evaluated. In this study, the full-length spike (S), S1 domain, and receptor-binding domains (RBD) from a highly virulent PDCoV strain were expressed in CHO cells. At the same time, the membrane (M) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins were produced in (). Following initial reactivity screening via protein microarray, S, S1, RBD, and N were chosen to establish iELISAs for detecting IgG and IgA antibodies in serum and milk samples. Evaluating iELISAs' specificity revealed cross-reactivity of anti-S IgA and anti-N IgA with porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) antibody-positive sera. Analysis of 75 clinical pig serum samples, and 75 colostrum samples demonstrated that IgA-based iELISAs had superior diagnostic concordance with virus neutralization test (VNT) results than IgG-based iELISAs, with the S1-IgA iELISA showing the highest concordance (93.3%). Furthermore, IgA antibody levels correlated more strongly with neutralizing titers (NTs) than IgG. These findings validate the S1-IgA iELISA as a robust, high-throughput serological tool for assessing PDCoV immunity in pigs.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14144.].

Rotavirus (RV) is a significant zoonotic pathogen primarily causing severe diarrheal disease in humans and animals, posing substantial risks to global public health and livestock industries. VP4 is one of the outer capsid proteins of RV and plays a crucial role in RV attachment and internalization. Additionally, it is also involved in replication and immune responses during RV infection; however, related studies are still limited. Here, a comprehensive analysis of the RV VP4 interactome was conducted, and DDX3X, one of six DExD/H helicase family members identified as interacting with VP4, potentially plays a crucial role in RV infection. Silencing DDX3X inhibits RV infection, whereas its overexpression facilitates RV infection. Further research demonstrated that VP4 interacts with DDX3X and the enzymatic activity of DDX3X was found to contribute to promote RV replication. Additionally, a drug screening study based on the VP4 interactome identified RK-33, a potent inhibitor of DDX3X, as the most effective candidate compound for inhibiting RV. In conclusion, VP4 interacts with DDX3X and the enzymatic activity of DDX3X is crucial for RV replication. The DDX3X inhibitor RK-33 exhibits significant inhibitory effects on RV infection. This study highlights the important roles of DDX3X in RV infection, offering potential candidate drugs for RV and expanding our understanding of its mechanisms.

The multiple waves of intercontinental transmission of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5Nx Gs/GD lineage since its identification in 1996 are testament to its resistance to control and prevention efforts. Knowledge of the predictors of HPAI international spread can help identify strengths as well as areas for improvement in surveillance and controlling HPAI. We used 10 years of data with quarterly granularity from the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH), United Nations (UN), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and genetic databases for 2.3.2.1c and 2.3.4.4b H5Nx clades, to determine the impact on international viral spread of (1) six categories of poultry commodities of legal international trade, (2) wild birds' migration, (3) five types of preventive measures, (4) resources allocated to veterinary services, and (5) geographic distance between countries. Two analytical approaches were used: a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) for all targeted countries, based on epidemiological, trade, and bird migration data. Then, phylogeography-informed generalized linear models (GLMs) with time-dependent predictors were specified for analyzing the HPAI spread between countries with available genetic data. The main conclusions of this study are that results suggested (1) a role of poultry trade in disease spread; (2) a role of migratory birds in disease spread; (3) a strong role of proximity between countries in disease spread; (4) a protective effect for resources allocated to veterinary services; and (5) a protective effect for precautions at borders in exposed countries (protective against informal trade). Our findings show the importance of proper implementation of preventive measures, as advocated in WOAH standards. In addition, our results show the complementarity of epidemiological, trade, biological, and genetic data to trace back international H5NX spread.

Wildlife is an important source of emerging zoonotic agents, including tick-borne ones. Wild carnivores such as mink are commonly parasitized by ticks, which are vectors and reservoirs of zoonotic diseases. Besides the importance of these arthropods as potential sources of diseases in mink, and the role of these mammals as reservoirs of infectious diseases, scarce studies of microorganisms of ticks from mink have been performed. In the present work, ticks collected from mink (European mink [] and American mink []) from 2007 to 2021 in the North of Spain, and their associated microorganisms (bacteria, protozoan, and viruses), were studied. A total of 916 specimens (154 , 761 , and one sensu lato) were processed in 165 pools (31 , 133 , and one s.l.). The microorganisms detected in pools were sp. (8), (4), spp. (23), spp. (7), and spp. (3). In pools, spp. (131), spp. (5), (5), and spp. (6) were amplified. Infection with spp. was found in the s.l. specimen. Mink are involved in the epidemiology of tick-borne microorganisms, including important pathogens. The role of these tick species as vectors and mink as reservoirs of these microorganisms should be further investigated.