Selenium (Se) is an essential yet toxic trace element; it has one of the narrowest nutritional optimums of all elements. The speciation of Se significantly influences its mobility, toxicity, bioavailability, and bioaccumulation. Se environmental cycling has been generally understood as a sequence of bidirectional redox processes of Se species. Elemental Se (Se) is considered a central species that is thermodynamically favoured in the redox conditions found in most environments. This study reports the identification of a novel group of dissolved species called polyselenylsulfides (with the general formula SeS). These species form upon the reaction of Se with sulfide. Using derivatisation and ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionisation quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry, polysulfides (S, x = 2-6), selenide (Se), polyselenides (Se, x = 2-3), and previously undetected polyselenylsulfides (SeS, SeS, SeS, and SeS) were identified. The reaction was spontaneous and proceeded rapidly at alkaline pH (completed within <24 h). A slower and incomplete reaction was observed at circumneutral pH. The fast and spontaneous reaction down to circumneutral pH suggests the ubiquitous importance of polyselenylsulfides in sulfidic environments and calls for revising the environmental fate of Se. The existence of polyselenylsulfides challenges the traditional 'selenocentric' view, which focuses on specific, bidirectional redox reactions that only involve Se species. Moreover, the perception of Se as a terminal, insoluble species in many anoxic environments is questioned. The adoption of a 'chalcogenic' perspective is proposed, wherein the selenium and sulfur cycles are closely interconnected and the fate of Se is governed by the presence of sulfide.

Nano zero-valent manganese and nano zero-valent iron were chemically combined to form a bimetallic composite (nZVMI). The synthesized materials were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction, along with kinetics, thermodynamics, and isotherm studies. Their capability, performance, and fundamental mechanisms for adsorbing phosphorus were investigated. Comparative tests demonstrated the synergistic superiority of nZVMI overusing both nZVM and nZVI alone. It was found that the analyzed bimetal acts as a composite with a core-shell structure that can adsorb up to 346.50 mg/g of phosphorus at 0.2 g/L of adsorbent dosage at a pH of 5 and for a 50 mg/L phosphorus solution. The reaction mechanisms of phosphorus using nZVMI were probably described as adsorption, surface complexation, co-precipitation, and electrostatic sorption. The adsorption mechanisms of the synthesized adsorbents fit the second-order pseudo-kinetic model. This study presents a new method for effectively removing phosphorus from water and improves the understanding of phosphorus interactions between nZVM and nZVMI. This bimetallic composite has a sustainable potential for effectively removing phosphorus from real river water with 99.5 % removal efficiency, providing phosphorus recovery, which is one of the priority agendas for global food security.

The pervasive occurrence of antibiotic residues in aquatic environments has emerged as a pressing global environmental concern. These contaminants originate predominantly from pharmaceutical manufacturing effluents, hospital discharges, and agricultural runoff. Their persistent release fosters the proliferation and horizontal transfer of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes. Reported abundances in pharmaceutical wastewater can reach up to 2.36 × 10 copies/mL, significantly exceeding those observed in municipal effluents. Conventional treatments achieve variable removal efficiencies (e.g., 45-98 % for membrane bioreactors, >90 % for ozonation, and 62-86 % for anaerobic digestion) but often fail to remove structurally complex and persistent antibiotics, particularly under real wastewater conditions. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), with surface areas exceeding 2000 m/g, tunable porosity, and diverse functional groups, have emerged as advanced adsorbents. Zr-based MOFs such as PCN-777 and MOF-525 exhibit exceptional adsorption capacities, 442.48 mg/g for cephalexin and up to 860 mg/g for tetracycline, surpassing conventional adsorbents like activated carbon. This review integrates experimental findings and density functional theory modelling to elucidate dominant antibiotic-MOF interaction mechanisms, including electrostatic attraction, π-π stacking, hydrogen bonding, Lewis acid-base coordination, and hydrophobic effects, offering molecular-level insight into adsorption phenomena. Key challenges, including hydrolytic instability, metal ion leaching, performance reduction in complex matrices, regeneration inefficiencies, and the limited representativeness of single-compound studies in predicting field-scale behavior, are critically evaluated. By linking mechanistic understanding with operational challenges, this work provides a targeted roadmap for developing water-stable, regenerable MOFs capable of delivering scalable and sustainable antibiotic remediation in diverse and challenging wastewater environments.

Lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) pollution are major environmental concerns in salt marshes affected by anthropogenic inputs. This study aims to enhance our understanding of the impact of Pb and Zn increases, individually and in combination, on Limonium brasiliense and Atriplex vulgatissima by examining accumulation patterns and combining morphological, physiological, and biochemical biomarkers, summarized using the Integrated Biological Response index (IBRv2). Our findings showed leaf-shape plasticity in L. brasiliense, whereas in A. vulgatissima a canalized morphology across treatments, a trend reflected in most biomarkers. Both species survived and maintained biomass, indicating tolerance to metal-induced stress. In L. brasiliense, variations in water content, leaf size, pigment concentration, photosynthetic efficiency, and ascorbate peroxidase activity highlighted a significant role of Zn in disrupting physiological function. In A. vulgatissima, most biomarkers, except leaf size and the activities of superoxide dismutase and guaiacol peroxidase, remained unchanged after treatments. Under Pb + Zn treatment, L. brasiliense accumulated Pb in roots and Zn in shoots, with a reduction in absorption efficiency (AE), whereas A. vulgatissima showed root-restricted accumulation of both metals and an increased AE. The IBRv2 indicated greater stress under Pb + Zn treatment in L. brasiliense and under Zn treatment in A. vulgatissima. Thus, these results suggest that L. brasiliense is more suitable for Pb phytostabilization and Zn phytoextraction, while A. vulgatissima may contribute to phytostabilization of both metals, showing distinct strategies: plasticity and modulation versus inherent tolerance, respectively. The findings highlight species-specific differences in metal tolerance, accumulation, and stress responses, directly impacting phytoremediation and biomonitoring in metal-contaminated environments.

Environmental estrogens are high-potency endocrine-disrupting contaminants detected across aquatic and terrestrial compartments. This review synthesizes advances from 2018 to 2024 in sample-preparation and extraction workflows for surface waters, wastewaters, and solid matrices, emphasizing approaches that enable trace-level quantification and are transferable to international monitoring. Solid-phase extraction remains the workhorse for aqueous samples, while greener and miniaturized formats including magnetic solid-phase extraction, dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction, thin-film microextraction, and deep eutectic solvent extractions reduce solvent footprints and processing time without sacrificing sensitivity. We evaluate matrix-driven performance with a focus on conjugate stability, potential deconjugation artefacts during sample storage and preparation, and their implications for reporting free versus total estrogens. Because environmental quality standards for key estrogens, notably EE2, approach low-picogram-per-liter levels, we benchmark reported detection limits against EU monitoring requirements (e.g., Watch List/EQS) and clarify IDL versus MDL definitions and reporting practices to improve comparability across studies. Collectively, these developments advance sensitive, scalable and more sustainable monitoring of environmental estrogens and support exposure and risk assessment across bio-, hydro- and lithospheric compartments.

Soil contamination with trace metals and metalloids (TMM) can negatively impact biota in ways not captured by chemical analyses alone. This study evaluates the effectiveness of two integrated biological indices (Total Enzyme activity Index - TEI, Integrated Biomarker Response - IBR) in detecting toxicity effects on biota in soils subjected to long-term TMM contamination. An ex situ biotest using soils from Peisey-Nancroix (France), a former Pb-Ag mining site, was conducted with the sensitive plant Arabidopsis thaliana to identify relevant biomarkers and develop key biological indices. The results demonstrate clear TMM toxicity, reflected in decreased microbial functioning (evidenced by reduced TEI) and impaired plant growth (shown by elevated IBR). These indices were then assessed in situ at the same site. Unexpectedly, TEI-despite its status as an early indicator of soil degradation-showed no relationship with long-term TMM toxicity or Pb-mobility, whereas IBR-derived from endogenous plant biomarkers-strongly correlated with TMM contamination and bioavailable Pb levels, particularly in the sensitive species Geranium sylvaticum. These results indicate that IBR is a reliable proxy for ecological risk and TMM bioavailability in chronically contaminated soils.

Nanoplastics have been shown to be potential environmental hazardous material, however not much is known on their role in modulating infection susceptibility and host-pathogen relationship. Present study investigated the role of polystyrene nanoparticles (PSNP) on infectivity of pathogenic Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Caenorhabditis elegans model. Physiochemical characterization of PSNP was done by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). The internalization in C. elegans was determined by FTIR. Effect of PSNP in worms infected with P. aeruginosa was assessed through various toxicological parameters including survival, bacterial load, growth, behavior, and reproduction. PSNP (∼100 nm in size) exposure to P. aeruginosa-infected C. elegans did not alter their survivability, but affected the transition from larval stage to adult worms. PSNP exposure also affected the growth, progeny and locomotory behavior in P. aeruginosa-infected worms. FTIR analysis readily confirmed PSNP internalization in C. elegans. Interestingly, PSNP-exposure to mutant C. elegans, with compromised innate immunity due to p38-MAP Kinase deletion, resulted in enhanced susceptibility to P. aeruginosa infection, as evident from more severe defects in locomotory and reproductive behavior compared to P. aeruginosa alone infected worms. Overall, these results revealed that PSNP exposure enhanced susceptibility to P. aeruginosa infection by possibly compromising the immune response. This study emphasized the importance of understanding the hazardous effects of nanoplastic exposure on host-pathogen relation in humans.

We investigated three-year changes in soil mercury (Hg) pools, methylmercury (MeHg) production, rice contamination, and microbial communities after a single Hg addition to two soils (Soil I and Soil II). In Soil I, total Hg (T-Hg) concentration of brown rice grain was 0.150 ± 0.023 mg/kg (n = 143) in 2015 and increased to 0.233 ± 0.080 (n = 135) and 0.240 ± 0.118 mg/kg (n = 225) in 2016 and 2017. In Soil II, T-Hg declined from 0.530 ± 0.101 (n = 130) in 2015 to 0.124 ± 0.059 (n = 213) and 0.168 ± 0.059 mg/kg (n = 200) in 2016 and 2017. Variations in T-Hg concentrations in rice grains cultivated in the two soils showed a relationship with soil MeHg concentrations within the same soil, but not between different soils. Sequential extraction, which partitioned soil Hg into seven fractions, indicated that Soil II contained a higher proportion of water-extractable Hg. This finding suggests that the mobility of Hg may have influenced the level of Hg contamination in rice grains. The proportion of Hg sulfide peaked approximately one month after the addition of Hg in both soils, then decreased over time. In contrast, the fractions of organic-bound and elemental Hg tended to increase over time. In soil II, where DNA extraction was successful, microbial communities showed no clear differences at the phylum level between the Hg-added and non-added samples, but distinct shifts were observed at lower taxonomic levels. Metagenomics showed that the MeHg/T-Hg ratio correlated positively with hgcAB gene abundance (r = 0.85, P < 0.05), while merA/merB showed no clear relationship.

Hazard identification at contaminated sites usually rely on total concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTE), but it is largely admitted that only the bioavailable fraction can trigger adverse effects. Assessing total PTE amounts is thus a worst-case scenario, that overestimates environmental risks and often leads to costly remediation actions. This study presents a practical and cost-effective methodology for assessing soil contamination by PTE, taking into account their bioavailability. To address this issue, we performed a three-tiered hazard identification considering: (1) total hazard (total PTE content), (2) environmentally available hazard (CaCl leachable fraction), and (3) environmentally bioavailable hazard (accumulation in plant leaves). Additionally, an Integrated Hazard Excess (IHE) index was computed, for aggregating raw contaminant levels into a single integrated hazard value. The methodology was applied to a former industrial site in Saint-Étienne, France. Soil and plant samples were analyzed for As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn. Mapping of IHE values provided a clear and holistic view of contamination across the site. Results showed that while total PTE levels were very high, the mobile and bioavailable fractions were overall within the range of local background observed in urban parks used for recreational activities. This indicated that actual environmental risk was significantly lower than total concentrations suggested. Thus, distinguishing total, available, and phytoavailable PTE amounts provided a more accurate and ecologically meaningful assessment of soil hazard. This approach could help decision-making and support the adoption of less disruptive and more sustainable remediation strategies, avoiding unnecessary excavation and landfill operations.

African dust outbreaks are recurrent events that have been extensively studied in the scientific literature. However, the intense event that occurred in March 2022 over Spain provided an opportunity to study various radiological aspects in depth due to the significant amount of suspended dust emitted and transported. The particles were morphologically and chemically characterised using SEM and EDX techniques. The chemical composition was homogeneous, with an Al/Fe ratio ranging from 0.48 to 0.72, consistent with that of the Sahara region. This study evaluates the radiological risk associated with Cs and Pb, determined from the activity concentrations of the dust, which were obtained through gamma spectrometry. The radionuclides from the uranium series (Pb) had an average value of 20.0 Bq kg, while those from the thorium series (Ac, Pb, and Tl) averaged 35.2 Bq kg. Additionally, the mean activity concentrations of Cs were 11.0 Bq kg, corresponding to fallout. The ratios of Cs/K and Be/Pb, with medians of 0.023 and 2.2 respectively, indicated that the event influenced the lower layers of the atmosphere. Furthermore, the ratios obtained between Pb/Po, determined using Bateman equations, confirmed a short residence time for Pb. On the other hand, the results from the extraction of the exchangeable fraction of dust particles showed a strong association of Pb and Cs with the dust particles. Finally, the effective inhalation doses obtained were several orders of magnitude below the 3 μSv day limit recommended by the ICRP.

Naturally occurring fibrous minerals, including erionite and amphiboles, are classified as Group 1 carcinogens, and pose an environmental health risk when inhaled in respirable sizes. In volcaniclastic regions, road cuttings that disturb and expose fibre-bearing formations can release airborne fibres through weathering and human activities. To investigate this process, this study collected surface dust and rock samples from roadside environments in a New Zealand volcaniclastic setting and analysed fibre abundance, characteristics, and the connection between rock sources and airborne fibres. Fibrous particles were detected in surface leaf dust on both sides of the road at all 11 sampling sites, with fibre abundance ranging from 462 to 61,595 fibres/cm. Of the 338 fibres measured, 93 % were within the respirable size range (geometric diameter <3 μm), and 15 % met the WHO criteria for hazardous fibres (length ≥5 μm, width <3 μm, aspect ratio >3:1). Chemical analysis indicated that most fibres had Si/(Si + Al) ratios consistent with mordenite, while crystallographic data confirmed 84 % mordenite, 13 % erionite, and 3 % amphibole. Mordenite was also the dominant crystalline phase in the rock samples, and fibre abundance in surface dust correlated moderately with mordenite concentrations in the corresponding bulk samples (Kendall's tau = 0.49, p = 0.04). These findings reveal an under-recognised environmental exposure pathway of respirable mineral fibres from roadside exposed volcanic outcrops, and highlight the need for further monitoring and health risk evaluation in volcanic regions where fibrous zeolite and amphibole minerals are naturally occurring and disturbed.

Hydrocarbon fuel production and use can pose environmental risks, such as spills during extraction and transportation, which can contaminate soil, damage vegetation, adversely affect human and animal health, and contaminate ground water with soluble hydrocarbons, that could spread to surrounding areas. Our study evaluates the simultaneous adsorption capacity of canola straw biochar for 12 hydrocarbon pollutants in ground water from a northern peatland. This approach simulates the simultaneous contamination of multiple hydrocarbon classes in a complex aqueous matrix. In the laboratory, canola straw biochar remediated benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX), and linear chained and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from ground water. BTEX concentrations significantly decreased with application of 1 g L biochar, achieving a remediation efficiency of over 95 % within 7 days. Increasing application rates enhanced remediation efficiency, exceeding 99 % at a 2 g L application rate. Hydrocarbon adsorption on biochar is a complex process involving surface interactions and diffusion-controlled steps, with the kinetic data fitting well to models indicative of chemisorption. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, BET/CO porosimetry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy corroborated theoretical isotherm and kinetic models, indicating that functional groups on the biochar surface play a crucial role in adsorption, primarily through hydrophobic and π-π interactions. The results enhanced our understanding of adsorption mechanisms for multiple hydrocarbon classes in complex matrices under controlled laboratory conditions, and positioned canola straw biochar as an effective remediation technique for hydrocarbon water treatment. Biochar is made from waste agricultural materials and sequesters carbon, contributing to environmentally sustainable remediation and a circular economy.

Bioremediation of oil refinery sludge (ORS) with earthworms offers a sustainable prospect in its pollution mitigation, however species-specific detoxification of ORS remains understudied. We conducted a 90-day mesocosm experiment to study the efficacy of two species, Eisenia fetida (EF) and Eudrilus eugeniae (EE), in ORS valorisation. Changes in physicochemical properties, heavy metal speciation (in gut and compost), and carbon fractions of the vermi-treated ORS composts were evaluated. EE yielded a 1.5-fold higher N increment than EF. EE reduced Ni's bioavailable fraction and residual fraction by 55.9 % and 39.4 %, respectively. EE showed an 11 % higher reduction in labile C pool than EF, with 1.95 % increment in its humic acid fraction. The gut bioaccumulation was 20-47 % higher in EE than EF across heavy metals. Moreover, the removal efficiency of heavy metals with EE was 24 % higher than EF. The higher vermiremediation benefit index (VBI) for EE (1.68) compared to EF (1.45) confirmed EE's efficient NPK mineralization and metal detoxification. Principal component analysis attributed earthworm growth, gut accumulation, and metal reduction to EE's higher VBI. Our findings underline the species-specific potential of E. eugeniae over E. fetida in ORS detoxification, while addressing the need to assess the long-term stability of vermiremediated ORS compost for safer agricultural use.

Beyond soil composition, several critical factors-such as organic matter content, soil pH, and the concentration of antimicrobial substances (AMs)-significantly influence both the adsorption and persistence of AMs, as well as the potential development of AM transformation products (TPs) in soil. Although AMs and their TPs contribute to soil environmental pollution, there is still a lack of research on the degradation of AMs and the identification of TPs. In this context, this study investigated the degradation of four AMs from different families-sulfamethoxazole (SMX), oxytetracycline (OTC), enrofloxacin (ENRO), and trimethoprim (TMP)-in a soil:compost mixture (97.2:2.8 w/w). The analysis was carried out at two concentration levels (1 mg kg and 150 mg kg) under controlled light and humidity conditions. The results showed a higher degradation rate for SMX, regardless of the initial concentration, and a higher persistence in soil for the fluoroquinolone ENRO. In addition, nineteen potential TPs were identified using a suspect screening analysis approach, many of which, to our knowledge, have not been previously identified in soil:compost samples. The higher degradation rate observed for SMX coincided with the highest recorded abundances of TPs of SMX. Conversely, the highest diversity of identified TPs was observed for TMP. This work also extends the information on the transformation mechanism leading to the detected TPs. However, there is still a large gap regarding the possible activity of the TPs and their influence on resistance propagation. Further research is therefore needed in this area, combining chemical and biological assays.

This study proposes a novel in-situ bioremediation strategy for the removal of highly toxic algal metabolites released during Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs). The target algal toxins are Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and Anatoxin-a (Atx-a) as they are acutely toxic, environmentally stable, evade conventional treatment processes and contribute to disinfection by-products formation. Native bacterial consortia isolated from lakes with recurrent algal blooms were immobilised on three matrices: polyethylene (PE), polyurethane (PU), and cellulose sponge (CS). Suspended systems achieved 90.4 % (MC-LR) and 92.5 % (Atx-a) removal at 50 μg/L, but efficiencies declined to 77.8 % and 80.0 %, respectively, at 250 μg/L. In contrast, immobilised systems maintained high removal efficiencies even at an initial toxin concentration as high as 250 μg/L, achieving 100 % toxin removal with PU and CS and over 90 % with PE. Although CS showed complete removal, its biodegradable nature limits long-term use. PU emerged as the most durable and effective carrier, ensuring stable microbial activity and negligible sorption. Microbial degradation was confirmed as the dominant mechanism, with Burkholderia sp. identified as the key degrader. This study also provides insight on Atx-a attenuation by identifying degradation products and proposing a potential co-metabolic biodegradation pathway. Microplastic analysis revealed minor particle release from PU, which can be further mitigated by enclosing the immobilised matrices in permeable barrier during field deployment to prevent secondary contamination. Present study highlights the promise of combining native consortia with immobilised systems as a scalable and environmentally compatible strategy for in-situ algal toxin remediation.

Phytoextraction is a soil remediation technique that involves growing plants capable of absorbing and accumulating high levels of trace metals in their aboveground parts from contaminated soils. The process can be aided by the use of organic amendments or the intercropping of plants. A field trial of (aided)phytoextraction was implemented in an abandoned Pb/Zn-mining area in the NW of Spain. The Cd/Zn-hyperaccumulator Noccaea caerulescens was planted in monoculture or co-cropped with the leguminous Lotus corniculatus in replicate plots established in non-amended or compost-amended mine tailings. Compost amendment improved soil properties such as total C and N contents, C/N ratio and nutrient availability, but decreased soil metal availability. Compost addition improved plant nutrition and biomass production of the hyperaccumulator. After 1.5 years of plant growth, no significant changes in soil total metal concentrations were observed. However, the concentrations of NHCl-extractable Zn decreased in plots cultivated with N. caerulescens. Intercropping with the legume induced significant increases in shoot metal concentrations in the hyperaccumulator. Both plant cover and compost addition increased the activity of hydrolytic and dehydrogenase enzymes, while decreasing catalase activity, which showed abnormally high values in mine tailings. The successful establishment of plant cover was essential to maintaining the improvement of organic matter and other soil properties induced by the compost amendment over time.

Herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides are synthetic pesticides widely used to control or destroy pests in agriculture. Their toxic persistence as residues in waters and soils is hazardous for plants and animals, necessitating their removal. This article presents a critical and comprehensive review of recent trends of Fenton and photo-Fenton strategies to destroy such pollutants from 2021 to May 2025. In synthetic solutions, homogeneous Fenton with HO/Fe yielding oxidant OH was limited to pH = 3.0 and by Fe(OH) sludge precipitation upon neutralization. Homogeneous Fenton-like processes with iron complexes solved this situation, allowing complete abatement of herbicides at higher pH values. Heterogeneous Fenton and Fenton-like processes with the generation of OH, O, and/or O oxidants also gave good degradation at pH > 3.0. Photo-Fenton upgraded Fenton by producing more OH from photo-Fenton reaction and photolysis of final Fe(III)-carboxylate species. Fast degradation was achieved at pH = 3.0 by homogeneous photo-Fenton upon UVC light and at pH = 7.0 by solar heterogeneous photo-Fenton. Combined processes like photocatalysis/photo-Fenton were more effective in removing pesticides than the individual ones. Pesticides in real wastewater were more slowly remediated than in pure water by heterogeneous Fenton and photo-Fenton. Positive Fenton treatments were applied to soils contaminated with pesticides, using activators/oxidants added to soil or soil washing effluents. The toxicity analysis of treated pesticide solutions by predictive programs of primary by-products and experimental assessment with microalgae, bacteria, and plants is detailed. The scaling up for industrial pesticide wastewaters is discussed as the main challenge of these treatments.

The application of organic fertilizers such as compost and sewage sludge to agricultural soils has emerged as a significant pathway for introducing (micro)plastics into terrestrial environments, where they may leach into groundwater, be ingested by soil organisms, or enter the food chain through plant uptake. The impact of plastic contamination introduced into soils via different types of organic fertilizers remains insufficiently quantified, particularly concerning the quantity, polymer composition, and particle size distribution of plastics. While research has highlighted the presence of microplastics in organic waste products, a comprehensive evaluation comparing various fertilizer types is lacking. This study investigates plastic contamination within seven organic fertilizers (e.g. green waste and biowaste composts, etc.) by analyzing polymer types, particle sizes, surface areas, and mass distribution in two consecutive years. While plastics were the primary focus of detailed characterization, the presence of glass and metal was also recorded to provide a broader context of foreign matter contamination. Three out of seven organic fertilizers (dry chicken manure, digested pig manure, and mixed digestate) and straws remained visually free of foreign matter in both years. Each visual-isolated particle of the remaining fertilizer piles was manually analyzed. Attenuated-total reflectance with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and siMPle were used for identification, showing that 82 % of the foreign substances were plastic. The particle number, mass, and size distribution were further contextualized by incorporating pile surfaces and application rates to calculate plastic loads per square meter (m). Key findings reveal that biowaste compost of 2023 exhibited the highest plastic mass (1.51 g/m), while green waste compost and sewage sludge of the same year exhibited lower contamination levels (0.069 and 0.125 g/m). However, variability between 2022 and 2023 was pronounced, complicating definitive conclusions about generally higher abundances of foreign matter. These results underscore the necessity for further long-term research to establish guidance on surveilling abundant foreign matter and incorporate this data into regulatory frameworks. Implications suggest that the quality of input materials and processing procedures plays a vital role in the particle mass and count of foreign matter, requiring stricter monitoring protocols to reduce the environmental impact of plastics in organic fertilizers.